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EFFECTS OF BIOSTIMULATION ON BEHAVIOUR, GROWTH, AND REPRODUCTION OF RABBITS

ABSTRACT

A 16-week study was carried out to determine how biostimulation affected behaviour, growth, and

and rabbit reproduction. 75 adult, crossbred rabbits weighing between 2.6 and 2.70 kilogrammes, consisting of

25 bucks, who were 8–10 months old, and 50 nulliparous does that were 6-7 months old were used for this.

study. Five treatment groups were assigned to the rabbits in a completely random manner.

(CRD). There were 10 nulliparous does and 5 bucks in each treatment. The study strategy included

a one-buck-to-two-does exposure ratio, which indicates five replications for each treatment and each

reproduction with two does and one buck in it. The does in the control group, however, weren’t

vulnerable to any buck. The females in the treatment groups were segregated into opposing cages.

1 buck for 7, 14, 21, and 28 days of age, at a distance of 2.5 cm between the bucks and 2 does.

exposure. The findings revealed that the does’ behavioural responses ranged from flattening at

There were substantial differences between mounting in a corner, a circle, without lordosis, and with lordosis.

across all treatments, (P0.05). Variations in vulva colour frequency range from white to red to

Pink was seen throughout the treatments. The biostimulated does’ reproductive abilities

Additionally, the average litter weight, pregnancy rate, and gestation time varied significantly (P 0.05).

were higher in the treated groups at weaning. Response time, sperm motility, and live-cell percentage

sperm, the proportion of dead sperm, and the proportion of coiling tails of the exposed bucks varied.

significantly different from the control (P 0.05). There was proof of a linear rise in hormonal

as exposure time increased to 7 and 14 days, profiles (estradiol and testosterone) were measured.

respectively. Consequently, this research implies that biostimulation may be a useful strategy for

raising rabbit reproductive efficiency. It was also discovered that subjecting rabbit does to

Rabbit bucks’ reproductive health could be negatively impacted if they wait more than 7–14 days before mating.

vii

performance. Farmers are advised to expose rabbit does to rabbit bucks as a result.

days before artificial insemination or mating for improved reproductive performance.

CHAPITER 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION

There is a great deal of interest in the manufacturing of because to the rising need for animal protein.

animals like rabbits that have recent generations (Obinne and Okorie, 2008). The growth of

Nigeria’s cattle business has a lot of potential to close the supply and demand gap.

If consideration is given to the demand for animal protein in the nation (Apantaku et al., 1998)

little livestock like rabbits. Rabbit meat is equivalent in composition to and in terms of quality to

superior to meat from larger animals (ruminants) and poultry, very tasty, and low in fat.

cholesterol and salt (Atteh, 2004). Frequently, rabbits are raised for their soft meat.

consumption by humans. Additionally, the most significant economic element for rabbits is high prolificacy.

production (Nofal et al., 2005; Belhadi, 2004). In addition, rabbits exhibit a variety of other characteristics.

They have positive traits that are helpful to subsistence farming, like their modest body size.

and a brief (between 30 and 31 days) gestation. Daily weight gain is proportional to the rate of

They have a quick development rate and early sexual maturation due to their body weight. These elements are

responsible for why rabbits reach sexual maturity 30% faster than other animals in terms of weight

making them suited for use as tiny livestock that produce meat in impoverished nations (Arijeniwa et al.,

Ajayi et al., 2005; 2000).

The amount and frequency of reproduction determine the profitability of rabbit production.

From a litter, weaned kits (Castellini et al., 2010). Despite the fact that rabbits are reflex ovulators,

Sometimes, ovulation after instantaneous mating does not lead to successful conception. The

intrinsic rabbit procreativity is currently hampered by biochemical, biophysical, and environmental factors.

problems that negatively affect their performance, thus it’s necessary to apply some

2

biological methods to increase their ability to reproduce. Biostimulation techniques are organic

and less expensive options to enhance animals’ reproductive efficiency. such techniques

have been discovered or tested in bulls, bucks, and hamsters (Bailey et al., 2005; Bonanno et al., 2011).

(Kasimanickam et al., 2007) and rams (Cooke et al., 2001). Other methods to encourage a stable

The use of hormonal treatments improves animal reproductive performance (Rebollar et al.,

2006). However, this raises personnel costs and could have harmful impacts on health because of residual

effects.

the practise of enhancing cattle production by the use of exogenous substances like hormones and antibiotics

flies in the face of consumer perception. According to Castellini et al. (2006), the European

In light of the residues left by hormones, community policy may limit their use.

the desire to maintain a natural meat quality and considerations for animal welfare in meat. Due to these factors,

The International Rabbit Reproduction Group (IRRG, 2005) has made significant efforts to

put up substitute techniques that don’t require hormone use in rabbit production in order

to make an animal more sexually receptive during artificial or spontaneous mating. Several

techniques to biostimulation including manipulating animals (doe-gathering) during the semen cycle

collecting, separating the dam and her litter, evaluating various reproductive rhythms, or remating

The buck effect, photoperiods, intervals, and adoption of various feeding programmes have all been attempted.

to avoid using hormones during animal reproduction (Ojeda and McCann, 2000).

These biostimulation techniques are thought to promote the release of luteinizing hormones and gonadotropins.

LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) via olfactory, ocular, and pheromonal signals.

and tactile cues produced by the anterior pituitary gland while being affected by various releasing variables.

(Ojeda and McCann, 2000) from the hypothalamus. The discharge of LH and FSH offers

steroidal feedback to the hypothalamus that maintains proper ovarian function

3

(Frink, 1998) Cycle. However, certain biostimulation techniques’ results and workings are still unknown.

and the impact of such behavioural reactions on how well rabbit does reproduce.

Bucks have not been adequately explained. Consequently, the goal of the current study was to assess.

the impact of biostimulation on nulliparous rabbit does’ reproductive efficiency as well as

to determine its impact on the buck’s semen qualities.

1.1 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

To lessen the impact of a growing global population on the demand for meat and animal products

Producing products from rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) is a realistic alternative because to their

rapid development, early maturity, great genetic selection potential, and high feed

conversion effectiveness and cost-effective space utilisation (Hassan et al., 2012). To make a

Continual evolution of the rabbit industry, breeds, and breeding techniques

obstacles should be researched and identified. However, the rabbit does’ terrible performance during

the need for the introduction of this service and the accompanying decline in ovulation and/or conception

of feasible and affordable methods for enhancing rabbit reproductive. Sexual reactions

Sensitivity female rabbits to male olfactory, acoustic, and visual cues has not been studied.

ovulation is thought to be caused by mating via a neuroendocrinological mechanism that has not been well researched.

reflex that causes an increase in LH (Bakker and Baum, 2000).

According to Frank (1966), there may be some pheromones released by the sebaceous glands of

To make does more sexually receptive, rabbit bucks are used. Additionally, it has been asserted that rabbit does

send particular signals that draw in male rabbits and convey information about her sexual status.

(1990; Hudson and Distel). The specific characteristics of the pheromones or messages are still unknown.

It’s unclear what the male and female rabbits exchanged. Nevertheless, it seems that male

In nulliparous does, presence increases receptivity and fertility (Berepudo et al., 1993), although

4

(Kustos et al., 2000; Eiben et al., 2001; Bonanno et al., 2003) Not in lactating does.

One method that has been tested on various species and looks to be effective is biostimulation.

potential for increasing animal reproduction (Theau-Clement, 2005). Moreover, several

Evidence has established that using exogenous gonadotropins such equine

Using chorionic gonadotropin (eCG) to enhance rabbit reproductive performance has led to

resistive effects, which lead to a drop in pregnancy rates and a rise in mortality rates

in the wake of frequent or intense therapy (Theau-Clément, 2007). Therefore, a useful

and effective non-hormonal method for increasing rabbit fertility is still necessary. This

study’s goal was to assess the reproductive effects of various exposure lengths.

performance of rabbit does and buck in determining the optimal exposure time.

performance.

1.2 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

This study’s main goal was to assess the impact of various exposure durations on

the effectiveness of rabbit does’ and bucks’ reproduction. The precise goals were to

Identify the:

Behaviour of female rabbits exposed to male rabbits at the time of mating, part a

b. Rabbit does and bucks’ productive behaviour during various biostimulation times.

c. Rabbit does and bucks’ reproductive efficiency and hormonal profiles over a range of time periods

using biostimulation

RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

H0: Rabbit does and bucks behave normally in response to biostimulation.

H1: Biostimulation has an impact on how rabbit does and bucks behave.

Ho: Both rabbit does and bucks act productively regardless of biostimulation.

H1: Biostimulation affects how productively rabbit does and bucks perform.

5

Ho: Biostimulation had no impact on the hormonal profile and reproductive efficiency of rabbit does.

both bucks

H1: Biostimulation has an impact on the hormonal profile and reproductive efficiency of rabbits.

females and males

6

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EFFECT OF SEASON ON AFLATOXINS LOAD OF SELECTED FEEDSTUFFS FOR PIGS IN THE HUMID TROPICS

ABSTRACT
Seasonal variations in the amounts of aflatoxins in specific pig diets in the humid tropics were studied.
the feedstuffs studied were palm kernel cake, bambara nut waste, cassava peels, and
grains used in brewing.

The investigation lasted for 32 weeks. Two bins were used to store these feedstuffs.
Each of the six LGAs of Enugu State’s Nsukka zone has piggery farms, in both dry and
wet seasons.

The feedstuff samples were collected and tested in the lab for aflatoxins.
AOAC technique of thin-layer chromatography (TLC) concentration levels with certain
modifications.

Data were gathered from these feedstuffs’ aflatoxins laboratory examination and
The findings of this analysis revealed the presence of aflatoxins in all the samples used.

samples of feedstuffs, while the lowest aflatox concentration—0.011 ppb—was found in
While the trash from bambara nuts and cassava peels has the greatest level of aflatoxins,

Brewer wasted grains have 0.055ppb, which is within Nigeria’s tolerance limit for total
The measured quantities of aflatoxins (B1+B2+G1+G2), which are 20 ppb, are within range and pose no health risks.

less danger to pigs and pork consumers. The findings also demonstrate that there was no change that could be considered significant.

(P > 0.05) on the levels of aflatoxins in the feedstuffs across the piggery and at their sources.
locations of farms, connections between sources of feeds and seasons, and locations of farms with pigs
exchanges, as well as interactions with the season and feeding.

However, seasonon’s primary impact
The levels of aflatoxins, which were extremely high in the dry and wet seasons, respectively, were 0.022ppb and 0.044ppb.

Additionally, the primary effect of the feedstuffs’ aflatoxins was highly significant (P 0.01).
0.01) with the exception of brewer’s spent grains,

where it is noteworthy (P 0.05). Therefore, the aflatoxins
levels in contrast to the piggery farm’s source of feedstuffs according to the season

Especially during the wet season, locations for the analysed feedstuffs were significantly significant (P 0.01).
Exceptionally, waste from bambara nuts is significantly significant (P 0.01) during the dry season. There were greater.
Increases in the levels of aflatoxins in all of the feedstuffs sampled during the wet season compared to the dry season
season. It was therefore determined that the season affects the amount of aflatoxins in pig feeds.

Rainy season favours the metabolism and growth of toxic mould in the feedstuffs, which
yields more aflatoxins as a byproduct in this study’s dry season,

thus adequate
It is important to take preventative precautions and handle and store feed properly. as a result,
suggested that piggery owners take appropriate precautions and follow the
a variety of preservation storage techniques to lower the amounts of aflatoxins in feedstuffs,

particularly in
the wet season to improve pig performance and ensure customer safety when eating meat.

CHAPITER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
In order to satisfy man’s need for protein, consuming animal protein is crucial.
normal development and growth.

Animal-based sources of protein are excellent suppliers of
amino acids lysine and sulphur, which are less abundant in protein sources of plant origin (Omole, 1991).

In most of Africa, there is a severe lack of protein, particularly animal protein.
According to estimates, 10 grammes of animal protein are ingested daily on average as opposed to the
35 grammes per day is advised (ILCA, 1980; FAO, 1986).

How much animal protein is there?
consumption was predicted to be 8 grammes per cap per day, which is roughly 20 grammes less than the
Recommendation of the National Research Council of the United States of America (Obioha, 1992; FAO,
1997).

Nigeria has a land area of 9,237,680 km2, but according to Ogini (2001), the greater
Over 120 million of her people still struggle with extreme poverty and hunger. Atsu
According to a 2002 study, Nigerians do not consume enough animal protein.

Feeds and feed ingredients are very expensive, especially traditional energy and protein feed.
As a result, sources like fish meal, soybean cake, groundnut cake, wheat, sorghum, and maize meal were used.

a result of the intense competition between human users of food, feeds and feed for livestock, and industrial
resources, such as cereal grains used to make infant food formulae and maize used to make biofuel
Adegbola and Asaolu (2008); Agbede et al. (2002).

In monogastric animals, maize is a key source of energy.
feeds, particularly for pigs, chicken, and rabbits. Cereal grains are in high demand in Nigeria, and its
Since production has never been sufficient to meet the needs of the growing population,

There aren’t many extra grains available for feeding livestock. When it is offered, it is almost always highly expensive.
(Rhule,1999). The price of traditional feedstuffs, which are significant sources of protein and energy in
2
The popularity of monogastric diets has increased (Onu and Madubuike, 2006; Defang et al., 2008) because
their deficiency. Maize’s cost increased from roughly N30 to N70 per kilogramme in 2005.

(Rhule,1999). As the struggle for grain continues between humans, farm animals, and industrial applications
replacements for grains are being utilised more frequently in the feeding of poultry and cattle in order to
feed prices should be made more affordable (Babatunde and Hamzat, 2005).

This ongoing increase in price of
The traditional feed components used to create poultry and animal meals have required an
intense quest for inexpensive replacement feed ingredients that can,

if necessary, replace a specific fraction
Several of the substances used in conventional feed (Babatunde, 1985; Onyimonyi, 2002; Adesehinwa et al.,
2011).

Ugwu et al. (2008) identified the primary barriers to the rapid expansion of animal
The lack of affordable feed supply is a concern for Nigeria’s production business.

The current high price is largely caused by the shortage and expensive nature of conventional feedstuffs.
of finished animal products such milk, meat, and eggs (Adesehinwa et al., 2011; Rhule, 1999).

The cost of feed is possibly the most expensive input in intensively farmed animals, according to Ijaiya et al. (2004).
stocks and accounts for between 70 and 80 percent of the true cost of animal production.

With Onyimonyi,
Onukwufor (2003) had previously stated that scarcity was a key remedy for the issue of growing costs.

the search for novel and unconventional feed is necessary to find energy and protein sources for monogastrics.
resources that can replace a specific percentage of the known conventional resources
feedstuffs that don’t negatively impact an animal’s performance.

According to Esonu et al. (2001),
Among such alternatives that have been used to successfully replace the traditional feedstocks are
Brewer’s spent grains, stem/tuber residues, and cereal by-products such maize, rice bran, and wheat offal
yam or cassava peels, bambara nut trash, and bran.

Feeding behaviour have been researched by Fetuga et al. (1977), Iyayi et al. (2005), and Onyimonyi and Ugwu (2007).
monetary value of non-traditional feed supplies including palm kernel cake, bambara nut offal, rice husk, etc

3
cassava peels, and that using them to augment a specific section of the traditional
feedstuffs. Additionally, Onyimonyi and Ugwu (2007) noted that these non-traditional feed ingredients are
frequently encountered in South Eastern Nigeria.

Babatunde and Hamzat (2005) state that these
Alternative diets have proven effective at boosting animal and poultry performance.

and that using them in the design of rations will significantly reduce the demand and
expense of conventional feedstocks, which significantly raises the overall cost of raising pigs.

Adegbola
agro-industrial byproducts have various limiting limitations, according to Oduozo (1992).
and crop wastes are used as animal feeds in the following ways: procurement, storage, inadequate feed
being low in their intake, having a high fibre content, harmful and anti-nutrient compounds, and being high in
digestion, which in turn reduces animal performance.

Pigs are considered to be extremely prolific and very effective at converting feed, according to Serres (1992).
high-quality animal protein from nutrients. According to Adesehinwa (2008), pigs are employed to transform a
various foods are transformed into meat for human use.

Pigs’ ability to produce animal protein is constrained by
Numerous elements, including poor breeding stocks, inadequate nutrition and feeding, and poor
Pig production management procedures and housing; illness prevention and control (Holness, 1999).

Mycotoxins were described by Pitt and Miscamble (1995) as dangerous secondary metabolites produced by microbes.of the group of organisms known as fungi or moulds. Awan (2001) noted that people can
It is very frequent and ubiquitous for moulds to create poisons that could be harmful to both humans and animals.

According to Odoemela and Osu (2008), toxic fungi have been discovered during plant growth and harvest.
Storage storage of various food and feed products, as well as other agricultural output. As per Abarca et al. (2001),

There are five main fungal toxins that are economically significant and crucial for agriculture, including;
The fungi that create aflatoxins,

deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin, zearalenone, and fumunism
invasion of agricultural products and feed components in favourable temperature conditions
(25–30 °C) with a relative humidity of more than 80% (Gilbert and Vargas, 2003). As said by Farombi

4
(2006), these moulds contaminate numerous staple foods and agricultural products, including
while recognising that both humans and animals are exposed to, rice, corn, cassava, peanuts, and spices
Consuming tainted food and animal feed exposes one to aflatoxins.

When these fungus metabolites are
reduced performance, illness, or final death when consumed, breathed, or absorbed through the skin.
death in both humans and animals (CAST, 2003; Kuilman et al., 1998).

According to Atanda et al. (2008), several yeast and mould species were recovered from grains containing
With a combined frequency of occurrence of 39.1%, Fusarium verticilloides and Aspergillus flavus are the most common.

respectively, and 22.3%. Moulds have the capacity to produce trichothecenes and aflatoxins in
Agricultural items include wheat, peanuts, cottonseed, and other things (Atanda et al., 2008).

According to Adam (2000), Aspergillus species create aflatoxins. In line with Sashidhare et
Al. (1992) suggested that the physical condition of grains may contribute to the high occurrence of mycotoxins contamination.

the amount of oxygen, temperature, moisture content, and carbon (iv) oxide in the air.
According to reports, these elements may have an impact on the rate of mould infestation and growth in
grains and agricultural products, especially those in storage.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
According to Adesehinwa et al. (2008), using alternative feedstuffs such cassava peels, brewery
Feeding pigs with leftover grains, palm kernel cake, and bambara nut waste can lower the cost of
production of pork.

These feedstuffs are purchased and kept in storage for a specific amount of time using various
Before feeding them to the pigs, use proper handling and storage methods. Throughout this time of storage and
The feedstuffs could be handled in a way that exposes them to aflatoxins and mould infection.

(Osweiler, 2006) Contamination. Poor feedstuff handling and storage, according to Henry (2009)
negatively impact the nutrition and quality of the feedstuffs provided to the animals (Akbar and

5
Majid, 2010).

Pig farmers can be feeding their animals mold-contaminated feed without knowing it.
recognising the contamination of such feedstuffs
Pigs with flatoxicosis consume less food, gain less weight, and grow more slowly.

Immunosuppression damages the liver and produces interleukin and antibodies.
haemorrhage (Lu, 2003; Sun and Chen, 2003; Creepy, 2002; Carvajah et al., 2003). Penn and
According to Miscamble (1995),

the buildup of aflatoxins, a significant mycotoxin in the
It is important to note that the feeds used to feed animals constitute a major threat to both animal and human health.

that they are to blame for several toxins and illnesses, including cancer, vascular, kidney,
abnormalities of the neurological system that may lead to the death of the animals or people consuming such animal products

(WHO 1979; Kuilman and colleagues 1998; CAST 2003). Akbar and Majid (2002) and Hussein and Brasel (2001)
(2010) noted that while aflatoxin B1 is the most dangerous of the four, there are also aflatoxins G1 and G2.

Of the aflatoxins, they are both common and dangerous (WHO, 1979; Pier, 1992). These poisons are extraordinarily toxic.

said to be teratogenic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic, and to pose health concerns to humans
characteristics over time in those who consume pork products with high levels of aflatoxins
Sun and Chen (2003); WHO (1979); Kuilman et al. (1998).

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The study’s main goal was to ascertain how the season affected the aflatoxin burden of certain
in the tropical tropics, fodder for pigs. The particular goals were

i. to measure the amount of aflatoxins in pig feed

ii. to measure the amount of aflatoxins present in the feedstuffs that are kept on the pig farm

iii. To ascertain how the levels of aflatoxins in the sampled feedstuffs are impacted by the seasons.

iv. to assess the amounts of aflatoxin in feeds at the source and in the piggery farm’s storage

v. To ascertain how pig breeders see aflatoxins and their effects

6
1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
This investigation is required to determine the amount of aflatoxins present in the various feedstocks used in
the steamy tropics while feeding pigs. According to Tewe and Adesehinwa (1995) and Ijaiya et al. (2004)

More than 70% of the cost of raising pigs goes towards feeding them. These feeds have been poisoned using
when fed to pigs, aflatoxins contamination as a result of mould infestation can have negative effects.

The harmful effects of tainted foods and feed ingredients (Pier, 1992; Odoemelam and Osu, 2008)
animal health reduces the pigs’ feed intake and lowers their immune systems, making them more susceptible to disease.

Low performance and death, particularly in piglets, were the results of the system (Sun and Chen, 2003; Lu,
2003). Due to the delayed maturity/growth rate, high labour costs, and other factors, it also raises the overall cost of pig production.

Death and the expense of treating/medicating affected pigs (CAST, 2003). Consumers of pork are also at
health concerns associated with aflatoxins exposure and buildup in pigs’ consumption of pork products
such feeds (Akbar and Majid, 2010; Akbar and Brasel, 2001; Ozsoy et al., 2005).

This may result in
human systemic disorders such as cancer (WHO 1979; CAST 2003). This research is required to
Analyse the amounts of aflatoxins in pig feeds and pig farmers’ knowledge of the effects on pigs.

production. Recent reports of epidemics of flatoxicosis in Kenya, Uganda, China, and India
as of 2005 (Lanyasunya et al.). Pestka et al. (1999) claimed that mycotoxin in particular

Dietary contamination with aflatoxins can cause subpar productivity and financial losses. hence the
The results of this study will provide an evaluation of the degree of exposure of pigs and consumers of pork.
with aflatoxins.

The outcomes will aid pig producers in taking actions to reduce the level of
Aflatoxin content of pig feed and consequences.

Additionally, it will boost pig producers’ income by
lowering pig production costs in the sampled areas.

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RABBIT FARMING AS A VERITABLE TOOL FOR ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT

ABSTRACT
Globally, there is a problem with food supply and security, which has led to a search for alternative production methods by individuals, governments, and other stakeholders. The poor are particularly vulnerable to both famine and food insecurity in the developing countries.

In order to determine, among other things, the profitability of rabbit farming, the level of acceptability of rabbit meat, as well as the obstacles preventing rabbit farming in the study area

the study examined rabbit farming as being a genuine tool for profitability and employment in Akwa Ibom state, Nigeria.

The study focused on the sample population’s demographic makeup, as well as their attitudes towards raising rabbits, income levels, and the benefits and products that draw farmers into rabbit farming.

In Nigeria’s Akwa Ibom State, the rabbit farmers in Itu L.G.A. were the target demographic. In this study, 78 rabbit farmers were sampled. Structured questionnaires and observations were used to gather data.

84.6% of respondents responded. Data was edited and cleaned in the Excel software programme, and descriptive statistics were calculated using SPSS, a statistical package for the social sciences.

Contrary to predictions, it was discovered that 72.5% of adults raised rabbits, with 39.4% of rabbit farmers owning 10 to 20 bunnies, and that attitudes towards raising rabbits had become less negative over time.

It was determined that the primary reasons why rabbit farming and keeping flourished were because they provided white flesh for food, cash, and manure. 78% of the farmers gave their consent. It was advised that potential keepers be informed about the benefits and items related to rabbits.

According to the report, rabbit farming is a profitable endeavour that should be promoted among farmers in rural areas and even among farmers who use machinery.

FIRST CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Nigeria is the continent’s biggest importer of frozen fish, according to Onebunne (2013), and needs over 1.5 million tonnes of fish and meat each year to keep up with demand.

Over 30% of the demand is currently being met by indigenous production, which includes major imports worth over N20 billion annually. (2013) Onebunne.

While it is continuing to rise quickly in developing nations like Nigeria, human population growth in industrialised nations is stabilising (Carl Haub, 2012).

Animal protein consumption in Nigeria is still low, averaging between 6.0 and 8.4 grammes per person per day, far less than the recommended 13.5 grammes per person per day (Egbunike, 1997). Thus, the need for more protein sources to fill this gap and address the population issue.

Economic indicators show that, rather than importing food into these countries, local farming and production need to be boosted as long as this population trend persists.

According to Owen et al. (2008), there are potential approaches that should be investigated and assessed in order to maximise food production and satisfy Nigeria’s protein needs.

Use of livestock species that have not yet assumed a significant role in animal production in these nations is one of these choices. In poor nations, small-holder subsistence-type integrated farming may benefit from a number of characteristics that rabbits have (Mailafia et al. 2010).

According to a preliminary market analysis by the International Finance Corporation (IFC), Nigeria’s current production of animal protein could easily increase by 25,000 tonnes, or 100% (Onebunne, 2013).

However, cattle, which could have been another significant source of protein, are being depleted by desert expansion, pest attacks, and other factors.

Thus, the production of mini-livestock including grasscutter, guinea pig, porcupine, snail, and rabbit is highlighted as the best choice for food security in the nation as of right now.

Numerous difficulties with rabbit farming in Nigeria have led to a severe lack of meat needed to address the country’s population problem (Nworgu, 2007).

Due to the high cost of agricultural inputs, poor funding for agriculture, inadequate functional infrastructure facilities, inconsistent government agricultural policies, insufficient private sector participation,

poor mechanised farming, and little to no adoption of some simple agricultural technologies developed by scientists, the growth rate of Nigeria’s agricultural sector is below the potentials of its natural and human resources (Nworgu, 2007).

Niamir-Fuller (1994) and Onifade et al. (1999) made the observation that women often assume full responsibility for animals kept near to the homestead, which are typically kept for household consumption. Examples of these animals include poultry, calves, rabbits, and other small livestock, as well as sick animals.

Although there are exceptions, such as among the Touareg in Algeria, Mali, and Niger, and occasionally among women in The Sudan,

women rarely assume substantial herding and management responsibilities for large stock. In Somalia, men tend to the camels while women manage the flocks of sheep, goats, and cattle.

One might have expected rabbit meat production to be on par with chicken and pig production, based on health speeches, seminars, and education efforts on the meat’s nutritional and health benefits, but this is not the case. There is little information available about the difficulties and future of rabbit farming in Nigeria.

Few sources of knowledge are able to explain the key complexities involved in raising rabbits (Mailafia et al. 2010). This opinion was supported by Abu, et al. (2008) in their analysis of Nigerian research on rabbits as an animal protein source.

Only six (3%) of the 153 postgraduate theses from the department of animal science at the University of Ibadan in Nigeria that were collected and analysed, spanning the years 1969 to 2006, used rabbits as research subjects.

Two of the theses were on nutrition, two were about processing and consumer acceptance of rabbits, and the final two were about reproductive physiology.

Production of rabbits has a tremendous potential for achieving food security in terms of supplying high-quality animal protein consumption, generating revenue for small-holder farmers, and lowering the country’s high unemployment rate.

Given that rabbit usage and production are obviously much lower than those of other livestock and poultry, the goal of this study is to examine the socioeconomic traits of rabbit farmers, the marketability of rabbit meat, the production barriers, and the costs and returns associated with raising rabbits.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Peasant farmers in Nigeria rear rabbits on a small scale for a variety of purposes, and they can be a valuable part of a modest, sustainable family business. While meat is the most common use of rabbit in agriculture, it is also farmed for its pelts, manure, show value, and laboratory use.

Compared to most meat consumed in the US, rabbit meat is high in protein and low in fat, calories, and cholesterol. In well run rabbitries, rabbits will breed all year long and are prolific breeders. Up to 23 kits can be kindled (given birth) by a doe at once. Eight puppies make up the typical litter.

Every year, rabbits typically have four to five litters. It is possible to kindle rabbits more intensely with good control. A rabbit weighing four to five pounds is ready for the market. With the right care and food, it normally takes eight weeks to attain this weight.

In terms of the quantity of feed consumed per pound of gain in body weight, rabbits have an effective feed conversion ratio. A doe can have up to ten times as many offspring as it weighs each year.

One of the healthiest meats available is rabbit. It contains the most protein, the least fat and cholesterol, the fewest calories per pound, and only 8% bone.

The care of a pet or house rabbit is very different from rabbit farming for meat production. A rabbit manufacturing system’s fundamental components should be carefully considered. Key aspects of labour, facilities, and lifestyle should be taken into account as with any livestock enterprise. Making the essential background check at the beginning will prevent errors later. Sanitation and health, nutrition, reproduction, and breeding are some of the other major issues with rabbit farming.

However, the enterprise’s uptake and adoption rates have remained low since the Impact Assessment Report (2006) on NALEP, which had identified rabbit production as a way to address food security as an animal protein source and a source of income for small-scale and poor farmers in both urban and rural areas.

Following these intentional efforts to grow the rabbit population and adoption rates that are still low and slow, it is necessary to reiterate the significance of rabbit farming while also addressing how much of a genuine tool it is in providing farmers with economic empowerment.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
GENERAL OBJECTIVES To investigate rabbit farming as a real tool for farmers in Nigeria’s Itu L.G.A. to become more economically independent.

PARTICULAR OBJECTIVES
To assess the extent to which farmers in the study area are engaged in raising rabbits.

To investigate the elements influencing rabbit farming in the research region.

To investigate the socioeconomic traits of the study area’s rabbit farmers.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS  .
Do rabbit farmers in the study area become more economically independent as a result of their work?

What extent do farmers participate in raising rabbits in the research area?

What aspects of rabbit farming in the study area are influencing?

What are the socioeconomic traits of the study area’s rabbit farmers?

1.5 RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER STUDIES
Finding and comprehending the main causes and/or influences of the rabbit farming issue, as well as developing solutions that inspire farmers to invest in the industry.

For policy implications and solutions, rigorous empirical research on the profitability of rabbit farming has received significant attention.

In order to give policy-related information that aids in prioritising among the various options based on the relative level of influences of its determinants, it is essential to characterise and diagnose the current farming systems.

This study will also give farmers and potential farmers a foundation for understanding rabbit farming and the venture’s profit margin.

More specifically, the findings of the study assist relevant entities in developing intervention procedures and policies that are suited to the unique requirements of the studied area. The study will ultimately support initiatives for additional research, extension, and development.

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study, with a sample size of 78 farmers, was conducted in Itu L.G.A., Akwa Ibom state, with a focus on farmers who raise rabbits. The study looked at farming’s profitability, contributing factors, level of involvement, and farmer traits.

1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Empowerment in the economic sphere refers to the capacity to decide how to manage and distribute financial resources.

Products made from rabbits are what one can obtain from raising them, and the farmer profits from this. In the case of raising rabbits, they consist of food (white meat), manure, revenue through sales of goods or rabbits, and skin and fur.

Rabbit productivity is the volume of various items produced from rabbits; when excellent husbandry practises are used, productivity increases and advantages are increased. Poor rabbit husbandry results in poor or low production, which has low benefits.

Total farm revenue is the money a farmer makes from the farming work he does on his property.

A livestock officer is a member of the Ministry of Livestock Development who is tasked with distributing information on livestock enterprises, including those using rabbits.

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EFFECT OF SELENIUM AND VITAMIN E ON THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF RABBIT DOES AND KITS

ABSTRACT
This study looked at how vitamin E and selenium supplements in the diet affected the ability of rabbit Does and Kits to reproduce. In the experiment, four groups of mixed-breed rabbits (New Zealand white, Dutch black, and Chinchilla) aged 8 to 9 months and weighing an average of 1.98 0.6 kg were taken into consideration.

Three did and a buck to serve them made up each bunch. Throughout the trial, group 1 Does acted as the control group, and all the bucks were fed the basal diet.

For four weeks, the does in groups 2, 3, and 4 received the base diet with supplements of 40 mg of vitamin E (VE), 0.3 mg of selenium (Se), and 40 mg of vitamin E plus 0.3 mg of selenium (VE + Se).

Except for the body weight of the litter at birth, which was significantly (P>0.05) increased by Se and significantly decreased by VE + Se supplementation, and weight at weaning, which was increased in the Se group, the study found no significant (P>0.05) differences in the reproductive performances of Does.

Blood haemoglobin, PCV, RBCs, and LH were identical to the control (P>0.05). Blood neutrophils rose in the Se and VE groups. Eosinophil and FSH considerably rose (P>0.05) in the VE+ Se group, while lymphocyte dramatically decreased (P>0.05).

Eosinophil and lymphocyte counts, however, were considerably (P>0.05) lower in the VE group. The therapies had no effect on Se, SOD, or glutathione peroxidase, which are oxidative enzymes (P>0.05). The MDA and reduced glutathione values were considerably (P>0.05) higher in the Se group.

The VE and Se group had significantly lower levels of glutathione. MDA was significantly elevated in the VE + Se group, whereas Catalase was dramatically decreased (P>0.05).

The therapies did not, however, have an impact on other oxidative enzymes (P>0.05). In conclusion, supplementing Does with Se at 0.3 mg/kg diet improved their FSH and oxidative enzyme status in addition to their reproductive performance.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The lack of animal protein in emerging tropical nations has long been acknowledged, and it continues to be one of the key obstacles to Nigeria’s achievement of food security. According to estimates, each individual needs roughly 75 grammes of protein per day, of which 40 grammes should be from animal protein (Akinwumi, 2011).

According to FAO (2014), the average daily intake of animal protein is 7g, which shows that animal products make up less than 16% of total protein consumption.

As a result of the population growth not being matched by an increase in animal per capital output, the problem is getting worse over time (Akunwumi, 2011).

Meat supply and demand have had trouble coordinating. The issue persists since cattle, whose nomadic production technique does not promote rapid output, provide 85% of the nation’s meat supply (Dung, 1992).

The federal government has developed strategies to increase domestic cattle output through its Agricultural Transformation agenda of 2011, utilising better technologies and management practises to this purpose. However, the effects of these programmes have not yet been determined.

The use of the advantages that rabbits (Mailafia et al., 2010) and other micro-livestock animals have over cattle to bridge the gap between meat demand and supply still leaves the country with a short fall in supply due to the numerous issues it is facing (Nworgu, 2007).

These advantages include a short gestation period, high reproductive potential, rapid growth rate, and ability to utilise forage. Utilising quickly growing livestock species like rabbits,

which have advantages in small-holder subsistence-type integrated farming in developing countries (Mailafia et al., 2010), is one way to increase food production and close the meat demand-supply gap in Nigeria (Owen et al., 2008).

The decline in the production of animal meat in Nigeria has been partially linked to diseases, the affordability of feeds, as well as competition between these food animals and people for the available grains.

Therefore, there is a need to raise knowledge of the high potential for producing rabbit meat and to promote its usage in developing nations as a real solution to the shortage of animal food (Ajala and Balogun, 2014), particularly in Nigeria and other tropical African nations.

The pseudo-ruminant rabbit grows and reproduces quickly (Hassan et al., 2012; Mailafia et al., 2010). If properly fed and cared for, a buck and two does can produce more than fifty (50) weaned bunnies annually, or roughly one per week (http://www.fao.org/docrep/to690eo/to690eoa.htm).

In terms of protein content, rabbit meat is superior to that of other farm animals (Aduku and Olukori, 1990). In comparison to beef, pork, chicken, or lamb (Aduku and Olukosi, 1990; Lane 1999), it also has less cholesterol, fewer calories, and a smaller percentage of fat (Mailafia et al, 2010).

Rabbit meat falls within the category of white meat and is considered safe for ingestion by both those with various medical issues and those following a strict diet who want to reduce their intake of fat (Ahsan, 2014).

Rabbit meat is highly recommended for cardiac patients and persons with cholesterol issues due to its low fat and cholesterol-free qualities.

Due to its relatively low salt content, it has been deemed safe for consumption by people with high blood pressure caused by a sodium intolerance. It is also used to cure atherosclerosis and restore normal metabolism in cancer patients receiving radiotherapy (Ahsan, 2014).

Due to its superior meat quality compared to other livestock species like cattle, sheep, and goats, the rabbit has been seen to outperform them all. The most effective animal for converting feed into flesh is the rabbit (Agunbiade, 2001).

According to Lebas and Matheron (1982), producing one kilogramme of rabbit meat only requires a fourth of the feed energy needed to create an equivalent amount of lamb, beef, or pig.Therefore, the rabbit has the potential to address the issue of the availability of meat in many developing nations.

Through adequate feeding, rabbits’ abilities and performance can be best explored (Iheukwumere, 2005). According to Robinson (1996), biological, dietary, and physical environmental factors all have an impact on a rabbit’s ability to reproduce.

In order to increase productivity, more feed and nutrients should be given to pregnant rabbits (Leban, 1983; Efiong and Weger, 2007). It is well known that malnutrition slows growth, delays puberty, lowers conception rates, reduces ovarian follicular growth, and impedes both nutritional and foetal growth through fatal / maternal competition for growth.

According to Devasagayam et al. (2004), reactive oxygen species (ROS) are chemically reactive molecules made of oxygen that are produced naturally as a by-product of regular cellular oxygen metabolism. ROS are important for cell signalling and homeostasis.

When the environment is under stress, the body produces a lot more ROS, which damages cell structures and causes oxidative stress (Rada and Lets, 2008).

The cells of the animal body have developed a variety of methods, including inactivating them (anti-oxidation) to counteract and repair the negative consequences of these ROS (Pierce et al., 2009; Argawal and Allamaneni, 2004).

Animals that are under oxidative stress have lower fertility than those that are not (De Bruin et al., 2002) and the oxidant status of the animal body might affect embryo development (Dennery, 2004).

There are different types of antioxidant enzymes made in vivo in the animal body from metallic co-factors like selenium (Se), and vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin that processes antioxidant characteristics (Surai, 2003).

It has been demonstrated that vitamins and minerals are crucial for the development of an animal’s reproductive capacity (De Bruin et al., 2002).and reduces the function of oxidative stress in the onset and development of numerous diseases since it contributes significantly to degenerative pathologies (Surai, 2003).

To increase the levels of vitamins and minerals in animal feeds, vitamin and mineral supplements are employed. Because vitamins and minerals are employed in animal production,

it is important to determine the extent to which these dietary supplements can be used profitably and successfully to increase reproduction in micro-livestock.

1.2 OBJECTIVS OF THE STUDY

The study is intended to assess the usage of selenium and vitamin E as potential to improve the performance of the does and kits in response to the need for optimal nutrition of rabbits.

The study’s particular goals are as follows:

to ascertain how dietary selenium and vitamin E supplementation affect a doe’s ability to reproduce
to ascertain the impact of selenium and vitamin E dietary supplements on the post-partum development of rabbit kits.
to ascertain the impact of dietary selenium and vitamin E supplementation on rabbit does’ oxidative and gonadotropin status.

JUSTIFICATIONS OF THE STUDY
One of the key elements that ensures high output in a rabbit farm is efficient reproduction. To achieve this, producers must consider management techniques that will enhance the physiology, behaviour, and overall health of the animal.

Minerals and vitamins are crucial for an animal’s development and reproductive health. These roles must be highlighted, and recommendations must be made for the nutritional and medicinal requirements of these chemicals in animal production, particularly in reproduction and the development of kits, since these serve as the foundation for this experimental study.

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UTILIZATION OF SOYMILK AS MILK REPLACER IN FEEDING FRIESIAN X BUNAJI CALVES

ABSTRACT
A two-stage experiment was carried out. The first stage was determining how long the soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merril) was allowed to soak before the anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) and performance of Friesian x Bunaji calves fed various soy:cow milk ratios were assessed.

Soybean was procured, cleaned, and separated into five groups (designated for the experimental treatments) in stage one of the experiment. The first group served as the control (unsoaked soybean), whereas the other groups underwent 12, 24, 48, and 72 hours of clean water soaking, respectively.

Once every 24 hours, the water was changed twice. The soybean was then rinsed, dried in the sun for 8 days, processed, sieved, and brought to the lab for testing.

According to the proximate composition analysis, unsoaked soybean xix (control) included 40.28% crude protein, 14.11% fat, and 3459.50 kcal/kg DM of metabolizable energy.

A 72-hour-soaked soybean had a 44.37% CP, 29.55% fat, and a ME value of 5514.57 kcal/kg DM, in contrast. Soaking the soybean, especially over 72 hours, increased its chemical makeup and decreased its levels of anti-nutritional components.

With increasing soymilk levels, the crude protein content of the various soy:cow milk diets rose. It ranges from 3.29% in the 0:100 to 5.23% in the diet comprising a 75:25 ratio of soy:cow milk. Similar patterns could be seen in the total solid, fat, solid-not-fat, and ash contents.

The feeding value of the optimal soaking period (72 hours) in combination with cow milk at a ratio of 0:100 (control), 25:75, 50:50, and 75:25 soy:cow milk, respectively, in the diets of Friesian x Bunaji calves was assessed in the second experiment using a growth trial.

Four food regimens, each comprising four calves, were randomly assigned to sixteen calves with an average body weight of 34.80.7kg. This was done using a completely random design. According to the growth trial’s findings, there was no difference in average total feed consumption between calves given the various ratios of soy:cow milk (P>0.05).

The lowest total feed intake (409.64 kg), average daily feed intake (4.18 kg/day), and better total weight gain (74.25 kg), average daily weight gain (0.76 kg/day), and feed conversion ratio (5.52), respectively, were seen in calves fed diets containing a 25:75 ratio of soy:cow milk as compared to calves fed cow milk alone (control).

Soymilk inclusion at various ratios exhibited a beneficial effect on some linear cavalry body parameters, including body length, height at the withers, and heart girth.

The results of the blood tests revealed that the levels of ANFs in the soymilk given to calves had been dramatically lowered after soaking soybeans in water for 72 hours.

White blood cells (4–12109/l) and glucose (40–100mg/dl) were both within the normal ranges. The rumen metabolites (rumen fluid temperature, pH, NH3-N, and TVFA) were positively impacted by feeding various soy:cow milk ratios, with the 75:25 ratio of soy:cow milk having the greatest concentration of RAN (13.84 mg/100ml).

The effects of sampling time on rumen temperature, pH, NH3-N, and TVFA concentrations were significant (P 0.05). The addition of soymilk at various ratios had a significant (P0.05) impact on the digestibility of DM, OM, CP, NDF, and ADF xx.

Calves fed soy:cow milk in ratios of 25:75 and 75:25 exhibited higher nutritional digestibility and nitrogen balance, though. Cow milk was almost three times more expensive per litre (N98.00) than soymilk (N33). Better feed cost per kg weight gain of N496.10 and N469.67 was seen in calves fed 25 and 50% soymilk, respectively.

The least amount of feed was consumed overall by calves fed a 75:25 ratio of soy to cow milk (N 30489.00). demonstrating that using 75:25 soy:cow milk was less expensive for calves than using only cow milk.

It was determined that 72 hours of sowing soybeans in water decreased the levels of ANFs and increased the nutritious value. In comparison to calves fed cow milk alone, feeding 25:75 soy:cow milk increased live weight gain by 0.76 kg/day to 0.67 kg/day.

Economically speaking, compared to feeding cow milk alone, feeding soy:cow milk at a ratio of 75:25 lowered the cost of feeding by (24.16%). Soybean soaking in water for 72 hours was advised in order to achieve optimal results.

Furthermore, it is advised to give calves soy-cow milk mixture in a 25:75 ratio rather than only cow milk for improved performance and feed conversion.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Although calves are the future producers of cow milk for human consumption, they initially rely entirely on milk to meet their nutritional needs. According to Ghorbani et al. (2007), milk is a special type of diet for calves and provides a wealth of nutrients necessary for growth and organ development.

In both commercial and small-scale dairy farms, post-natal feeding of dairy calves is crucial for optimal health and growth (Khan et al., 2012). However, Nigeria’s native varieties of cattle are naturally bad milk producers, as they don’t make enough to support their calves optimally, much less have extra for human use.

As a result, calves are underfed or starved, which stunts their growth and increases their mortality. Lack of nutrition, particularly in the early stages of life, affects calves’ reproductive and productive abilities throughout their entire lives (Roy et al., 2016).

Infant pre-ruminant nutrition can be improved and survival can be raised if adequate milk replacements are made accessible (Khan et al., 2012). Improvements in the nutritional health of calves during their first two to three months of life may help them mature sooner, be better able to withstand viral threats, and provide more milk later on (Drackley, 1999).

According to Roy et al. (2016), milk replacers (MR) are excellent sources of liquid nourishment for calves. According to Khan et al. (2012), milk replacers are any feed ingredients, or a combination of feed ingredients, that can be used to replace entire milk in a calf’s diet.

They are created from milk byproducts with the addition of a few extra ingredients so that the finished product resembles whole milk.

Vegetable oils, skim milk powder, and whey powder are the main ingredients of a normal MR. On a DM basis, the average crude protein content is 20%, while the average fat content is 15%–22% (Mete et al., 2000).
2
In affluent nations, by-products from the milk processing industry are used to provide substitutes for whole milk feeding to pre-ruminants (Oliveira et al., 2015).

Such a practise is impractical in Nigeria, a developing nation where the need for milk and milk products in human nutrition is rapidly rising as a result of population growth (ATA, 2013).

The use of milk replacer is intended to increase calf performance while reducing the expense of whole milk in calf rearing programmes (Mete et al., 2000).

In the creation of milk substitutes, a variety of low-cost, high-quality plant proteins, including soyflour, soymilk, soy protein concentrate, and wheat protein, could be used (Ghorbani et al., 2007). However, Roy et al. (2016) shown that because soy protein contains high-quality protein, it is frequently employed in milk replacer formulations.

According to Ghorbani et al. (2007), animal milk typically comprises 1.0 to 5.6% protein. Soybean, on the other hand, has an appropriate amino acid profile and can contain up to 40% crude protein (Gernah et al., 2013).

In addition to being a good source of protein, soymilk is also high in carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, and minerals (Nitsan et al., 2005).
For the artificial upbringing of young animals, soymilk, a novel milk substitute, has been employed (Ghorbani et al., 2007).

A few research (Bartlett et al., 2006; Ghorbani et al., 2007; Masum et al., 2009; Roy et al., 2016) showed that giving calves soymilk as a milk substitute resulted in improved growth performance when compared to whole milk feeding.

Despite playing a crucial part in animal nutrition, soybean cannot be offered to animals raw because various anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) restrict how well it may be used. Protease inhibitors, tannins, phytates, oxalates, saponins, and other substances are examples of ANFs.

Thankfully, these ANF levels can be decreased or removed by soaking, cooking, sprouting, fermenting, toasting, etc. (Soetan and Oyewole, 2009). As a result of their partial or complete solubilization and elimination with the discarded solution, soaking may also lower ANFs like protease enzyme inhibitors, phytates, etc.

(Prodanov et al., 2004). ANFs and complex proteins are less harmful in calves with fully functional rumens, therefore processing is less important (Liener, 1994).
3
1.1 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
The best liquid feed for pre-ruminants is milk replacement. Commercial milk substitutes are hard to find and costly because they are typically imported. Soybean can be grown locally, is easily accessible, and is less priced. Because of its great nutritional value, soybean has the potential to be used in milk substitute compositions.

A good source of high-quality, reasonably priced protein is soybean. Because it is inexpensive and contains essential amino acids that are similar to those found in cow’s milk, soy protein is frequently utilised in calf milk starters and replacers instead of milk proteins.

Since soymilk is less expensive than cow milk, successfully substituting soymilk for cow milk may lower the cost of feed. However, processing and subsequent solubility of the protein source are critical in assessing the viability of alternative proteins in milk substitutes in order to maintain proper growth and health of the calf.

To increase the feeding value of soymilk, soaking as a processing technique could be used. If processed soymilk is able to successfully substitute cow milk, it may also increase the nutritional value and survivability of calves.

Farmers may easily use the technology to increase the survival of the calves and have extra milk available for sale. Therefore, it is crucial to investigate the utilisation of soymilk as a substitute protein source in milk substitutes in calf nutritional studies.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The study’s main goal was to look into the pros and cons of substituting soymilk for cow milk in dairy calves’ diets. The particular goals were to assess:

1. The impact of soaking time on the nutritional and antinutritional makeup of soybean (soybean milk quality).

2. How Friesian x Bunaji calves fared when given various proportions of soymilk and cow milk.

3. The financial benefit of giving Friesian x Bunaji calves milk in various soy:cow milk ratios.
4
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The following research inquiries served as the basis for this study’s design:

Does the length of soaking have any impact on the nutritional and anti-nutritional components of soybeans?

Does feeding Friesian x Bunaji calves varied ratios of soy:cow milk have any impact on how well they perform?

Research Question 3: Is there a financial benefit to feeding various soy:cow milk ratios?

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EFFECT OF PARITY AND BIRTH TYPE ON UDDER CHARACTERISTICS, MILK YIELD AND COMPOSITION OF WEST AFRICAN DWARF SHEEP

ABSTRACT

Twelve West African Dwarf (WAD) sheep were employed, four in each of parities one, two, and three, to examine how birth type and parity affected udder features throughout nursing and pregnancy.

yield, composition, and the phenotypic connections between them and milk yield. The following measurements of sheep’s udders were made: udder length (UL), udder width (UW), udder circumference (UC), udder volume (UV), teat length (TL), teat width (TW), teat circumference (TC), distance between the teat (DBT), and teat height from the ground (THG).

These measurements were made on a monthly basis during the five months of pregnancy and on a weekly basis beginning four days after delivery during the twelve weeks of lactation. The results demonstrated that there was a highly significant (P 0.01) parity effect on all udder parameters during pregnancy and lactation.

The highest values during pregnancy were recorded by ewes in parity three, which had values of 8.26, 8.08, 23.95, 1.12, 1.08, 2.49, 287.34, 6.25, and 27.20 for UL, UW, UC, TL, TW, TC, UV, DBT, and THG, respectively.

Ewes in parity two had values of 6.30, 7.32, 23.29, 1.05, 0.72, 2.18, 229.3, 5. For UL, UW, UC, TL, TW, TC, UV, DBT, and THG, respectively, those in parity one had least values (cm) of 5.88, 6.33, 22.19, 1.02, 0.69, 2.14, 119.91, 5.35, and 22.02.

During lactation, ewes in the third parity had significantly higher values (cm) for UL, UW, UC, TL, TW, TC, UV, DBT, and THG, respectively, followed by those in the second parity with values of 7.88, 8.66, 35.79, 1.57, 1.03, 2.53, 310.03, 6.56, and 24.95, respectively.

For UL, UW, UC, TL, TW, TC, UV, DBT, and THG, respectively, ewes in the first parity had substantially lower values (cm) of 7.33, 8.35, 32.56, 1.28, 0.93, 2.41, 271.90, 6.28, and 25.98. It was very significant (P 0.01) that birth type had an impact on udder features both during pregnancy and breastfeeding.

In comparison to single bearing ewes (6.74, 7.18, 22.58, 1.03, 0.80, 2.18, 196.64, 5.68 and 23.92 for UL, UW, UC, TL, TW, TC, UV, DBT and THG, respectively), twin bearing ewes had significantly higher values (cm) for UL, UW, UC, TL, TW, TC, UV,

DBT and THG during pregnancy (6. Twin bearing ewes during lactation had significantly higher values (cm) of 8.35, 8.98, 37.25, 1.67, 1.13, 2.82, 364.25, 6.75, and 25.10 for UL, UW, UC, TL, TW, TC, UV, DBT, and THG, respectively, compared to single bearing ewes, who had values of 7.84, 8.36, 34.38, 1.49, 1.01, 2.69, 290.

The highest mean milk yield was recorded by ewes in the third parity (228.95 ml), followed by ewes in the second parity (157.18 ml), and the lowest milk yield was recorded by ewes in the first parity (126.42 ml).

The third parity twin carrying ewes produced the largest mean milk output during lactation, 249.0914.85 ml. The first parity’s single-bearing ewes had the lowest mean value, 124.54 ml.

Parity influence on milk composition was not significant (P > 0.05) for lactose but significantly significant (P 0.01) for moisture, total solid, solid not fat, protein, and fat.

Ewes in the second parity had mean values of 80.95, 18.84, 11.79, 6.04, 6.27, 0.76, and 4.98 for the same constituents, while ewes in the first parity had corresponding values of 82.75, 17.25, 10.63, 5.48, 6.61, 2.75, and 3.37 for the same constituents.

Ewes in the third parity had the highest mean values (%) of 79.24, 20.73, 12.98, 6. With the exception of total solid and lactose, the birth type influence on milk composition was extremely significant (P 0.01).

In comparison to single bearing ewes, twin bearing ewes had significantly higher mean values (%) for moisture, total solid, solid not fat, protein, fat, ash, and lactose, respectively, at 80.86, 18.94, 11.85, 6.06, 7.29, 0.768, and 4.97

compared to 81.08%, 18.92%, 11.75%, 6.00%, 7.18%, 0.760%, and 4.96%. For UL, UW, UC, TL, TW, TC, UV, DBT, and THG, respectively, the correlation coefficients between udder dimensions and milk yield were 0.92, 0.79, 0.91, 0.92, 0.86, 0.88, 0.60, 0.08, and -0.24.

CHAPITER 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Many tropical nations, like Nigeria, struggle with a lack of animal protein (FAO, 2003). According to Akinfala et al. (2003), there was a shortage of animal protein for human use in Nigeria.

Despite the many benefits of consuming animal protein, most developing nations do not consume enough of it, according to FAO recommendations from 1992. According to Harold (1984),

when cattle were domesticated, people believed that only meat could be produced from them; yet, milk and its byproducts were also considered to be food items from cattle. According to Harold (1984), the Middle East is where animal milk was first documented to have been consumed by people as food circa 5000 B.C.

According to the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO, 2001), sheep produced 1.3% of the world’s milk, compared to cows, which produced 84.6%. According to George (2001), who examined the nutritional value of various milk types,

sheep milk, which contains 19.30% solids, 7% fat, 5.98% protein, 193 mg of calcium, and 108 kcal, is of higher quality than cow and goat milk, which contains 12.01% and 12.97% solids, 3.34% and 4.14% fat, 3.29% and 3.56% protein, 119 mg and 134 mg of calcium, and 69 kcal, respectively. Therefore, it is necessary to boost sheep milk output.

It is essential to explore for alternative sources of milk besides cattle, according to Adewumi and Olorunsomo (2009), who noted that Nigeria’s growing demand for milk and its products has made this necessary.

The authors claim that over time, especially in metropolitan areas, local milk supply has continually fallen short of demand, resulting to a large-scale importation of milk and milk derivatives.

Because of ongoing reliance on imported milk, the price of milk has increased 2, making it unaffordable for the typical Nigerian. Therefore, finding alternate sources of milk for local use is vital.

Because there are significantly more sheep than cattle in both rural and urban populations in Nigeria, local sheep breeds have the potential to fill a substantial amount of the country’s milk shortage (Rim, 1992; Adewumi, 2005).

Additionally, they are more inexpensive for families with limited resources and provide more milk relative to body size than cattle (Nuru, 1985).

According to research, sheep milk has more essential nutrients than human, cow, and goat milk, with the exception of lactose (Buffano et al., 1996). Sheep milk’s high vitamin D and calcium content aids in the prevention of osteoporosis. It is highly effective in the treatment of rheumatism, dyspepsia, peptic ulcer, pyloric stenosis, neurotic indigestion, and sleeplessness.

Additionally, some Nigerian customers believe that it tastes better and more naturally than cow milk (Adewumi et al., 2001). Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), a substance that fights cancer and helps people lose weight, is present in higher concentrations in sheep milk than in cow milk (George, 2010).

Compared to cow or goat milk, it yields more cheese per litre (Assenat 1985, Chamberlain 1989, and Adewumi et al., 2001).
The curd is firmer and the rennet coagulation time for sheep milk is shorter due to the greater casein concentration (Jandal, 1996).

It has also been suggested as a more flavorful, natural substitute with excellent nutritional and therapeutic potential (Hardy, 2000). Despite this promise, researchers have mainly ignored sheep in their pursuit for higher productivity (George, 2001).

Chukuka et al. (2010) indicated that limited genetic potential is also a significant barrier to ruminant production, in addition to dry season feeding, which was considered to be a major challenge for Nigerian ruminant production (Bawala et al., 2007; Ademosun, 1994).

The majority of native small ruminant breeds in the tropics, according to the authors, have not been chosen for high production. Animal improvement efforts are required because of the limited genetic potential of WAD sheep and goats, which is frequently cited as a key barrier to the supply of meat and milk in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Therefore, study into the native sheep breed (WAD) is essential in order to determine the quality and potential yield of its milk.

1.1 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The study’s primary goals were to

(i) ascertain the WAD sheep milk yield in Nsukka’s humid tropical region.

(ii) To assess the milk’s composition.

(iii) Analyse changes in the WAD sheep’s udder features throughout lactation.

(iv) To determine links between udder traits and lactational milk production.

1.2 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
One of the protein sources that has found a place in human nutrition is sheep milk. In addition to being very nutritious, sheep milk also sells for a much higher price per kg—nearly four times that of cow milk. 2010 (George).

The majority of sheep milk produced worldwide is used to make cheese. Sheep milk cheese is widely imported into the United States of America, and it is also used to make yoghurt and ice cream. 2010 (George).

Therefore, it is crucial to do this research in order to learn how much milk a native breed of sheep—the West African Dwarf—can produce.

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GENETIC STUDY OF GUDALI AND WAKWA BEEF CATTLE BREEDS

ABSTRACT
The goal of the current study was to assess the genetic performance of the
Wakwa and Gudali beef cattle. Information used in this study came from the Institute of
Wakwa Station, Cameroon’s Agricultural Research for Development (IARD).

Information utilised
included 2276 performance records for the animals and the pedigree data for 3788 animals.
Cattle from Gudali and Wakwa, weighing in from birth to 36 months, respectively
between 1968 and 1988.

The information was gathered from herd books (calf record sheet,
a cow progeny record sheet and a bull progeny record sheet) containing pedigree data and
Performance data for the Gudali and Wakwa breeds from birth to 36 months of age.

The raw data were adjusted so that the entries used included entire calf information.
the animal’s name, sire’s name, dam’s name, gender, date and season of birth, herd, and
birth weights, 3-month weights, 4-month weights, and 6-month weights

Yearling weight (YWT), 6-month weight (6MWT), weaning weight (WWT), 12-month weight (12MWT), and 18-
weights for the following months: 18 MWT, 24 MWT, 30 MWT, and 36 MWT.

weight per month (36MWT). The fixed effects that were incorporated into the model’s
generic linear models process as a preliminary analytical method for the
integrated in statistics Analysis System 8.2 of the statistics software.

Breeding percentage
used the Multiple Trait Derivative Free Numerator Relationship Matrix to calculate
The Multiple Trait Derivative Free Restricted Maximum (MTDFNRM) programme
Package for likelihood (MTDFREML).

Analysis was done on the genetic components of the growth attributes.
employing the MDTFREML package. From these, the genetic variance that is added (2
a), mother
Variation (2
m), variations in error (2
e), phenotypic variability (2)
Covariance among additive
Variance resulting from additive genetic and maternal factors (am), genetic and maternal
At convergence, heritabilities and variance (ram) were derived.

Genetic resemblance (rG)
computed between growth characteristics. According to preliminary assessments, all fixed effects
of calf birth month and year, season, sex, herd, and herd-year-season had an extremely high correlation

While the sire’s year of birth had significant (p 0.0001) influence on all the development parameters examined,
significant (p 0.05) for every feature examined, with the exception of the 30- and 36-MWT. Within the Gudali
All features except BWT, 3MWT, and cow age group were not significant (p > 0.05) for breed.

4MWT and 24MWT both produced effects that were highly significant (p 0.01). In the Wakwa, as well
All features except BWT, 3MWT, and cow age group were not significant (p > 0.05) for breed.

WWT and 4MWT. The study’s average inbreeding coefficient ranged from 0 to 1.
to 8%. For every variable examined, maternal variations were consistently lower than additive genetic
variations between the two cattle breeds.

the relationship between maternal and direct components
was adversarial in all attributes examined.

The h2 test for direct heritability
estimations for the BWT, 3MWT, 4MWT, 6MWT, WWT, and YWT
There were 0.39, 0.24, 0.22, 0.10, 0.25, 0.21, 0.18, and 0.25 at 18MWT, 24MWT, 30MWT, and 36MWT, respectively.

For the Gudali cattle, the corresponding values are 0.18 and 0.18. However, the direct heritability (h2)
a)
BWT, 3MWT, 4MWT, 6MWT, WWT, YWT, 18MWT, 24MWT, 30MWT, and
36MWT were successively 0.41, 0.22, 0.17, 0.25, 0.21, 0.16, 0.15, 0.22, 0.34, and 0.33
acquired for the livestock of the Wakwa. Wakwa’s birth weight’s direct heritability estimate was
high (0.41).

Modest genetic additive heritability (h2)
a) BWT estimates were obtained.
YWT (0.21), 24MWT (0.25), 3MWT (0.39), 4MWT (0.24), WWT (0.24), and
11
Gudali animals. H2 medium
3MWT (0.22), 6MWT (0.25), WWT (0.21), and a were achieved.

In the Wakwa cattle, 24MWT (0.22), 30MWT (0.34), and 36MWT (0.33). The demeaning heritable
6MWT (0.10), 18MWT (0.18), 30 MWT (0.18),

and 36 MWT (0.18) features were present for the
Wakwa cattle included 4MWT (0.17), YWT (0.16), and 18MWT. Gudali cattle were also present.
(0.15). Inheritability from the mother (h2)
BWT (0.05), 3MWT (0.13), and 4MWT estimates were made.

(18MWT), 24MWT (0.09), 30MWT (0.09), 6MWT (0.07), WWT (0.11), and YWT (0.10)
(0.03), and 36MWT (0.07) for cattle from Gudali. Moreover, Wakwa cattle maternal heritability
the following: BWT (0.16), 3MWT (0.16), 4MWT (0.14), 6MWT (0.18), WWT (0.18), and YWT
(17MWT, 0.13), 18MWT, 24MWT, 30MWT, 0.05), and 36MWT, 0.10). the mother

Heritability for performance attributes varies between lowly heritable and medium in both breeds.
inherited qualities. Heritabilities ranged from moderate to high values, indicating that selection for
Despite the antagonistic connection between direct and maternal growth features, they were successful.

effects. Some of the growth metrics’ additive direct genetic relationships were
high and favourable (0.50 to 0.99). For maternal genetics, the same pattern was seen.

Although several variables had negative genetic relationships (0.53 to 0.99), BWT
BWT and 36MWT (-0.79); and EMWT (-0.80).

BWT and specific genetic relationships
BWT and YWT; and WWT; BWT and 18MWT; BWT and 36MWT;
YWT and 18MWT, YWT and 36MWT, and WWT and 18MWT all work together.

0.53, 0.39, -0.66, -0.21, 0.88, 0.87, 0.70, 0.70, 0.60, and 0.50 for 18MWT and 36MWT respectively.
the Gudali livestock. The Wakwa cattle exhibit direct genetic relationships between similar features.

Those values were, successively, 0.79, 0.52, -0.50, -0.31, 0.95, 0.79, 0.69, 0.93, 0.60, and 0.49. the mother
For Gudali cattle, the genetic correlations between the same attributes were 0.72, 0.39, -0.81, -0.89,
1.00; 0.99; 0.97; 0.60; 0.70; and 0.50; 0.62; 0.32; -0.80; -0.79; 0.75; 0.99; 0.50; and 0.60
0.53 for cattle from Wakwa.

The high and favourable values for the additive genetic and
Strong correlations between the growth metrics show that one feature is being selected for.
would lead to an improvement in the other trait’s genetic makeup.

The overall performance standard
comes near to that described in literature for beef cattle of the two breeds of cattle. The
estimates of genetic characteristics and data on the consequences of the different
Factors should be taken into consideration while creating breeding plans for the herds under study.

CHAPITER 1
Introduction in general.
Introduction 1.1.
One of the most significant economic sectors in many developing countries is agriculture.
Up to 80% of the population can rely on it as a survival mechanism in some nations (Cupps,
2007).

It is crucial to the rural economies of developing countries (Omage et al.,
2007). The food crisis that has gripped Africa and developing nations calls for a more comprehensive approach.
unified effort.

Nearly all of the major dietary sources in emerging nations are starchy.
foods like cereal crops, tubers, and roots. Evidently, these cannot and do not meet the
population’s needs for protein.

Consuming enough protein, especially animal protein, is
consistently far below the advised rate (Omage et al., 2007). American Medical
Association advised adults to consume 34.4g of animal protein everyday as a minimum.
day.

Unfortunately, the average animal protein consumption in poor nations is only 7.5g.
compared to the 28g that the typical Briton consumes (Wines, 2009).

Over 800 million people globally experience hunger or malnutrition.
due to inadequate food supply, poor distribution, and also because the population is too large
Being poor prevents one from having enough money to buy a sufficient amount and quality of food.
(Palitza, 2009; Bayemi et al., 2005).

It is accurate to say that Africans who eat food experience this.
they are primarily made up of oil and starch (Redmond, 2009)

. Cattle production provides a way to
animal protein is changing quickly because beef is widely accepted around the world.
(2007) Zahraddeen et al.

Additionally, cattle provide food, nourishment, and revenue.
cultural and societal roles. But they continue to produce primarily meat, milk, hides, and dung.
both traction.

Consumption of beef and milk is increasing at a rate of more than 5% annually.
till 2020, when it is anticipated to develop even quicker (Cupps).

Cattle goods are in greater demand as a result of a mix of factors, including high
Increased affluence, population growth, urbanisation, and dietary diversity in
Protein is replacing very high levels of starchy staples in emerging nations (Nwosu, 2002).

Due to these factors, the majority of African nations have started breed evaluation programmes, which
potentially result in a rise in livestock output. a crucial element of effective
Planning for upcoming breeding plans is based on documentation of past selection’s progress.
13
But few of these studies have been done for cow breeds, particularly in
mainly due to their lengthy generational gap (Abdullah and Olutogun, 2006).

In Cameroon, cattle are a significant component of the livestock industry. The nation is
Moreover supplied with the means to produce animal feed year-round,

especially given the accessibility of weeds, feed, and crop residue. The importance of cattle in
Depending on the people’s ethnicity and culture, Cameroon can be viewed in a variety of ways. They
skins are used in industry to generate animal proteins,

which are a significant source of wealth.clothing, luggage, and other furniture for the home (Redmond, 2009). increasing the number of cattle
Production would not only enhance Cameroonians’ diets but may also generate surpluses for
export. The new arrangement of a cattle sector in Cameroon and its new situation

The global economy encourages cow farmers to look for more productive varieties.
They typically turn to unrestricted crossbreeding as a way to quickly enhance the
live-weight.

Despite the fact that crossbreeding has been strongly advocated for improving cattle
if not adequately managed, breeds in the tropics, the results could be severe (Ferraz et
al., 2006).

The Gudali cattle of Adamawa, Cameroon, have experienced this in the past.
suffered from unchecked crossbreeding with the red and white Zebu breeds over the years.

The native Gudali breed is the dominant one in the Adamawa area of Cameroon, and it
approximately 19% of Cameroon’s total cattle production (Ngaoundere Gudali 15% and
Banyo Gudali 4%) and is still the most well-liked, particularly in the small-scale farmer sector of the
Adamawa, according to Tawah et al.

A short-horned Zebu cattle known as the Gudali can be found
within the continent of West and Central Africa.

It has a good disposition and makes great beef.
production capacity; and are capable of reproducing and producing at their best under the current conditions
without a lot of additional input, tropical environmental conditions (Ebangi, 1999). They
are docile,

have wonderful temperaments, and are also fairly hardy. It is between
compared to many other cattle breeds, huge in size and slowly developing (Tawah and Mbah
1989).

As a result, the Institute of Agricultural Research for Development made an effort.
(IARD) of Cameroon to hybridise the Brahman with the native Gudali in order to enhance the
characteristics of native Gudali growth.

The local bulls were crossed with the Brahman bulls (Figure 2).
Using Gudali cows, the first filial generation known as “Prewakwa” is produced. It was intertwined with
create the Wakwa, a synthetic two-breed cattle breed (Figure 3).

Wakwa is distinguished by
a range of coat hues. Males and females weigh roughly 512 and 426 kg when they are mature.
is distinguished by its many different coat hues. It features a long but broad face that is slightly convex.
14
drooping ears, short horns with a broad base, an oval hump, and a back that is straight but broad.
1999 (Ebangi).

Any breed’s ability to genetically advance in a specific environment will depend on
determining the main environmental performance restrictions, developing methods of
reducing or containing them, and then assessing the breed’s capacity to adapt to them
restrictions that are difficult to control.

understanding the role of non-genetic factors in the
Therefore, farm animal performance is crucial when considering breeding.
projects designed to increase production and foster the creation of alternative breeding
policies.

Improvement of live-weight attributes is a breeding goal for beef that is becoming more and more essential.
Production systems for cattle and other livestock (Peters et al., 1998).

The mean’s shift from
During the first few cycles of a population-based directional selection, one of the traits is among
the most trustworthy standards for determining how much genetic variation is exploitable in a particular population
genetic diversity.

Consequently, understanding the genetic factors, their magnitude, and direction
of genetic relationships between key metrics that are economically significant in a selection.

A programme is required. This will be required for the genetic prediction and optimisation.
advancement following a selection programme.

In constructing animal models, estimation of variance components is always a crucial technique.
breeding schemes. Since error variance, estimates of variance components must be precise.

As disparities between expected and true levels of growth for anticipated breeding values,
El-Said et al. (2005) found an increase in the variance components.

Genetic connections and heritabilities
Estimates are crucial inputs needed for livestock breeding research as well as in the
designing and implementing useful animal breeding programmes.

When employing genetic
When it comes to animal breeding, heritability is a crucial population factor because it
dictates, in large part, the likelihood of modifying a population through selection.

hence, you’re right
Understanding heredity will aid in determining the animals’ proper breeding value.
selected for a course of future improvement.

A lot of economically significant characteristics, such growth characteristics,
connection in which the value of one is changed along with the value of the other
one more.

The idea of genetic correlation is this. initial calf growth, particularly in
Suckling period is impacted by maternal additive genetics as well as direct additive genetics.
environmental impacts that are genetic and maternal in nature.

Consequently, in particular if there is a
Negative correlation between maternal genetic impacts and direct effects; both effects should be considered
15
best genetic advancement by taking selection procedures into consideration (Dezfuli and
2009 (Mashahekhi).

In conclusion, research on environmental variables, heritability estimations, and correlation
Give essential information on the relationship between growth features and the degree of inbreeding for beef cattle
breeding strategies. Such details will be beneficial for genetic advancement and
attainment of improved performance levels.

The Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IARD) has conducted research on
Wakwa Station, Cameroon gathered data on Gudali and’s growing performance,

Wakwa beef cattle, of which some have not been fully utilised. the current
Employing data gathered between 1968 and 1988,

the study evaluated growth traits genetically.
from the Wakwa Station location of the Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IARD).

1.2 Objectives Of The Study
The goals of this investigation were to:
1. Examine the environmental (non-genetic) elements that influence growth features in the Gudali and
Wakwa livestock.

2. Find out how much the Gudali and Wakwa beef cattle population is inbred.

3. Calculate the (Co) variance components of the Gudali and Wakwa beef cattle’s growth attributes.

4. Calculate the breeds’ respective growth trait heritabilities.

5. Determine the genetic relationships between maternal (ram) and direct influences on growth. qualities of performance.

6. Calculate the genetic correlations between the two breeds of cattle’s growth qualities.

1.3 Justification Of The Study
The phenotypic performance of an animal is the outcome of its actual genetic potential in addition to its
ability to specifically handle environmental stress.

It is crucial to comprehend the
influence of genotype and environment on a population’s performance attributes. info on
The criterion for assessing the breed’s merits will be growth performance.

estimations for
Not only is it important to consider environmental and adaptability factors when planning future breeding
techniques but would allow the Gudali selection plan to be carried out more precisely.

Wakwa herds are bred. Despite the crucial part the environment plays in beef cattle,
Research on environmental issues are scarce in the literature due to the production in Cameroon. Tawah and co.
(1993) investigated the preweaning growth performance parameters for Gudali and Wakwa.
utilising the Least Square method, livestock. Ebangi et al. (2002a) looked at factors that could
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Using a mixed model method, we may examine growth features before and after weaning. Although these
Only a part of the data from both breeds was used by the writers. These elements need to be researched.
the remaining selection data for the two breeds’ growth traits.

All populations exhibit some degree of inbreeding (Pico et al., 2004). This
effects in beef cattle, for example, are widely documented in all major livestock
Burrow (1993) has reviewed them.

Various studies indicate that the amount of inbreeding
may differ between populations. While inbreeding can jeopardise the immediate
In addition to affecting population health and survival,

it also makes harmful genes more active.
of choice. Considering the aforementioned, any genetic assessment should take into account the rate of
Inbreeding and its impact on animals’ average phenotypic performance (Analla
et al., 1999).

If there is no variation, a trait cannot be improved (Nwosu, 2002).
Genetic, environmental, and phenotypic variations are crucial components in selection and in
the advancement of livestock.

while keeping the herd’s reproductive effectiveness
In order to meet production, improving growth potential should be of special concern.
from the manufacturing process.

Genetic characteristics that describe enduring diseases are interesting.
features of growth that evolve over time.

Having sufficient information and using genetic
Variations are crucial for improving the economic traits of beef cattle through
breeding. The most accurate estimation of these metrics for economic significance features is
needed:

When creating effective breeding strategies,
predicting the genetic gains anticipated under mass selection in order to spot issues and
foreseen limitations for necessary measures,

When determining breeding value,
calculating the speed and direction of the selecting process, and
(Nwakalor, 1975) in the creation of selection indices.

Many economically significant beef characteristics, such as growth characteristics, are related in some way.
if the value of one changes along with the value of the other. This
relates to the idea of genetic connection.

According to Pico (2005), it would be helpful to understand the
empirical connections between a growth trait’s additive genetic and maternal correlations
population.

Understanding the genetic relationships between attributes will aid in the prediction of
Correlated responses and in determining the animal’s breeding value for such features
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considered. Additionally, breeders are most interested in genetic relationships because they can
describe the expected changes that will occur in the upcoming generation.

Consequently, correlation
Estimates between attributes show the strength and direction of the relationship between the
characteristics that aid in creating programmes for cattle improvement.

Previous attempts to study beef cattle’s genetics have mainly been limited to small, single
(Abdullah and Olutogun, 2006) Herd populations.

However, more focus has been placed recently on
has been used to examine cattle herd performance and progeny in America and Australia.
(Meyer, 2005).

While genetic research in the industrialised world has received a lot of media attention
However, it is regrettable that there is little information on genetic research in our
Tropics-specific breeds of cattle.

Indeed, following decades of exploitation, regional breeds are now
As a source of valuable diversity, according to Nwosu (2002). Therefore, there is a requirement for the
genetic analysis of our native population.
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Ngaoundere Gudali cow in Figure 1.
Agricultural Research for Development Institute
19
Brahman cattle, Figure 2.
American Brahman Breeders Association, Houston, Texas, as a source
Australian Meat and Livestock Corporation,

Handbook of Australian Livestock, 2000.
Board of Regents of Oklahoma State University, Third Edition
20
Figure 3: Cattle from Wakwa
Agricultural Research for Development Institute

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EFFECTS OF FEEDING PROCESSED CASTOR SEEDS AND CAKE MEALS ON THE PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF BROILER CHICKENS

ABSTRACT
To ascertain the impact of processed small seeded variety of dehulled castor seeds and castor seed cake on performance of broiler chickens, two feeding trials utilising isonitrogenous diets were carried out.

In broiler study one, the starter and finisher phases were conducted using 216 day-old broiler chicks and 204 broiler finishers that were five weeks old. In both investigations, a completely randomised design (CRD) was used. For experiment 1, the beginning phase lasted 0 to 4 weeks, and the finisher phase lasted 5 to 9 weeks.

Every phase included four treatments. Three copies of each treatment were performed. In the experimental meals for research 1, CS B60 was present at concentrations of 0% (control), 10%, 20%, and 30% for diets 1 through 4, respectively.

In the second broiler trial, the starter and finisher phases were conducted using 225 one-week-old broiler chicks and 135 six-week-old broiler finishers, respectively. The starting phase lasted between one and five weeks, and the finisher phase from six to nine weeks.

The initial phase included five treatments. The finisher phase was condensed to three treatments. The starter phase’s experimental diets included CSC B60 at 0% (control), 10% CSC B60 with 0.5% L-Lysine and 0.5% DL-Methionine supplementations, 20% CSC B60 with 0.25% L-Lysine and 0.25% DL-Methionine supplementations, and 20% CSC B60 with 0.5% L-Lysine and 0.5% DL-Methionine supplementations.

Diets for the finisher phase were CSC B60 at 0% (control), 10% CSC B60 with supplements of 0.33% L-Lysine and 0.25% DL-Methionine (diet 2), and 10% CSC B60 with supplements of 0.66% L-Lysine and 0.5% DL-Methionine (diet 3).

Therefore, aminoacid supplementations included increasing the amount of lysine and Dl-methionine in the supplemented meals by twice what was present in the lower level supplemented 10% or 20% CSC B60 diets. Three copies of each treatment were used during the starter and finisher phases.

Chemical tests of the castor seeds revealed that as boiling time rose, the amount of crude protein, crude fibre, and ether extract all increased. When compared to the unprocessed raw castor cake (RCSC), the anti-nutritional factor contents of CSC B60 showed lower levels of phytate, haemagglutinin, tannins, and oxalate (P 0.O5).

The results of Broiler Study 1 revealed that as the level of CS B60 in the diets grew, the final weight, total weight gain, and feed intake of broiler chicks steadily reduced and the feed to gain ratio increased. With rising CS B60 levels, dressing percentage fell.

As dietary levels of CS B60 increased, it appears that birds’ crude fibre digestibilities reduced. Between treatments, there were no discernible variations in PCV, Hb, or TP (P > 0.05). The results of broiler research 2 revealed that adding extra 0.25% amino acid supplements on top of the typical 0.25% supplements had no discernible impact on the growth and feed utilisation of the birds fed diets with CSC B60.

The majority of the birds fed 20% CSC B60 meals with or without additional amino acid supplements perished during the beginning phase. The two treatments that contained 20% CSC B60 were thus excluded from the experiment’s finisher phase.

For the 10%CSC B60 diet, dressing percentages dropped whether or not additional 0.25% amino acid supplements were added. The breast (%), back (%), thigh (%), and neck (%) all showed the same pattern. Between treatments, there were no discernible alterations in the PCV, Hb concentrations, or blood TP values (P > 0.05).

It was determined that diets containing CS B60 or CSC B60 were not suitable as feed ingredients in broiler starter or finisher diets. These diets also contained 0.5% L-Lysine and DL-methionine supplementations for the starting diet.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

The high cost of conventional feedstuff used in compounding animal meals is one of the issues the Nigerian livestock industry is now facing.According to Akinmutimi (2001), conventional or primary protein sources including soya beans, groundnut cake, fish meal, and cotton seed cake are not only expensive but also subject to competition from humans and other industrial users.

These materials are becoming extraordinarily expensive. It has been emphasised how important it is to use less expensive non-conventional feedstuffs. The castor seeds and castor seed cake (obtained after oil extraction) are the non-conventional feedstuffs taken into account in this study.

If the endeavour to employ castor seed and the cake is successful, it might lower the cost of animal production overall and feed production in particular, as well as boost the output of the livestock sector of Nigerian agriculture (Annongu and Joseph, 2008).

The castor oil plant (Ricinus communis L.) yields castor seed and castor seed cake. It is an angiosperm from the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae. Castor oil plant is not a legume, thus. It grows either wild or farmed in tropical and temperate locations all over the world.

Castor oil plant commercial production is uncommon in Nigeria. Unknown is the amount of production per year. The plant frequently grows wild near residences, farms, streams, and the sides of rivers.

The word “Zurman” is used in Hausa, “Ukpaka” in Ibo, “Sharai Jojo” in Tiv, “Ogiri” in Idoma, “Kpamfini” in Nupe, and “Ewe Laa” in Yoruba.

The dehulled seeds of the castor oil plant are commonly used as a flavor-enhancing food condiment in the southern states of Nigeria (Achi, 2005).
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After pressing the oil from the castor seeds (oil extraction), castor seed cake is produced. Castor seeds and their cake have been used in animal feeding, according to reports (Martins et al., 1982; Okorie and Anugwa, 1987; Ani and Okorie, 2002).

However, the presence of phytotoxins, principally ricin and ricinine (Liener, 1986), an exceptionally potent allergen (Horton and Maurice, 1989), and high fibre levels in undehulled seeds (Browning et al., 1990) restricts the use of castor seeds and castor seed cake as a feed element in chicken rations.

Additionally, it is known that the protein from castor seeds is lacking in the amino acids lysine and sulphur (Satar et al., 1979; Browning etal., 1990; Ani and Okorie, 2009; Ani, 2007). Lysine and methionine are lacking in the castor seed cake (Davendra, 1988).

The use of castor seeds and castor seeds cake meals as a source of protein in rations for pigs, chickens, and rabbits was hampered by antinutritional factors and nutrient deficiencies.

1.1 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
Depending on the degree of decortication and oil extraction, the crude protein content of castor seed ranges from 21 to 48% (Adedeji et al., 2006). Depending on the degree of decortications and deoiling, the cake contained between 32 and 48% crude protein (Rama Rao, 2004).

According to Akande et al. (2012), castor seed cake has a high crude protein content that is comparable to the protein found in the majority of traditional protein feed sources like soybean meal and peanut meal.

However, due to its toxicity from the inclusion of ricin, ricinine, and thermostable castor allergens, the seed and cake are not extensively utilised as a feed item in cattle rations (Ani and Okorie, 2009). Castor seeds can be processed using the many techniques used to prepare legume seeds for use in chicken diets.

According to Enujiugha and Ayodele-Oni (2008), traditional ways of processing castor seed and cake, such as heat treatment, soaking, and fermentation, may significantly lower the amounts of the anti-three nutritional components.

Castor seed cake and detoxified castor seed have been demonstrated to be effective sources of protein for ruminant animals, pigs, and chicks in animal feeding studies (Ani and Okorie, 2006; Oso et al., 2011; Akande et al., 2011).

Studies have also indicated that adding extra minerals and enzymes to diets made with castor seeds may improve their nutritional content (Okorie et al., 1988; Babalola et al., 2006; Ani, 2007).

Although 10% of the diet composition for poultry is the recommended amount, this study looked at various methods of detoxifying/processing castor seeds and castor seed cake in order to make the high protein content available for increased grill bird productivity.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study was to:

I. Ascertain the impact of the length of time castor seeds and castor seed cake were boiled on their chemical compositions and levels of anti-nutritional components.

II. To ascertain how feeding grill chickens a graded amount of boiling castor seeds affects their growth performance, carcass features, nutritional digestibility, and haematological markers.

III. To ascertain the effects of lysine and methionine supplements on the consumption of diets that contain boiled castor seed cakes.
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1.3 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

H01: Castor seeds and castor seed cake’s chemical compositions are not improved by boiling, nor does it have any impact on the level of antinutritional components that are reduced.

H02: Castor seed meal and cake that have been boiled are both inappropriate feed items for starter and finisher diet formulations for broilers.

H0 3: Adding lysine and methionine to the diets of broiler starting and finisher animals will not increase their ability to use processed castor seed cake meal.
5

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GROWTH AND CARCASS CHARACTERISTICS OF WEANER RABBITS

ABSTRACT
In order to study the growth and carcass characteristics of weaner rabbits fed four dietary levels of Moringa oleifera leaf meal (MOLM), twenty four (24) cross-bred rabbits of both sexes, consisting of twelve (12) males and twelve (12) females, were used.

Treatments 1, 2, 3, and 4 received, respectively, 0, 10, 20, and 30% MOLM.
According to the results, rabbits on the T3 diet gained the most weight (1600.00 56.27g), while those on the T2, T4, and T1 diets gained, respectively, 1583.33 0.14g, 1441.67 47.29g, and 1366.67 77.10g.

Additionally, rabbits on T3 diets gained more weight each day (9.54 0.70g) than did those on T2, T4, or T1 diets (9.03 0.39g, 7.54 0.89g, and 6.65 0.85g), respectively. Additionally, there was a significant difference (P 0.05) in the cost of feed per kg of gain for Treatment 3 (N77.08),

compared to Treatments 4, 2, and 1, whose feed prices were N85.57, N85.66, and N132.85, respectively. Feed consumption, feed conversion ratio, and feed price per kg feed (N) did not change significantly (P > 0.05) between treatments.

The results of the carcass investigation revealed a significant difference (P 0.05) in the weights of the liver, lungs, spleen, and thoraxic width of the lion.

On the other criteria, such as liver weight, dressed weight, carcass length, head weight, fore limb weight, hind limb weight, heart weight, and kidney weight, there was no significant difference (P > 0.05), according to the study.

A comparison of the haematological traits of rabbits given MOLM revealed no statistically significant differences in packed cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin (HB g/d), red blood cell count (RBC), or white blood cell count (WBC) (P>0.05).

Therefore, this study reveals that for maximum performance, rabbits can take up to 20% of Moringa oliefera leaf meal (MOLM). Higher degrees of integration led to poorer performance and ought to be avoided.

CHAPITER 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Fast-growing animals with short generation intervals are becoming increasingly popular due to the rising demand for animal protein and tighter economic conditions.

Pigs and poultry are the preferred options, but due to the high cost of production and competition with humans for feed, their production is more difficult. Fetuga (1997) detailed the underwhelming rate and degree of performance in Nigeria’s cattle sector.

He attributed this, among other things, to the high cost of feeds, which was primarily caused by variations in the supply of feed, rising ingredient prices, poor-quality feeds, and inefficiencies in the manufacture and distribution of feeds in the feed sector.

Numerous researchers have offered solutions for improving Nigerians’ low consumption of animal protein. The rabbit is one of the cheapest meat producers that may readily fit into a larger segment of the population but has been overlooked in Nigeria.

The ability of the rabbit to transform foods like forages, the majority of agricultural byproducts, kitchen trash, etc. into very nutrient-dense meat.

Rabbits have a fast reproductive rate, are inexpensive to feed since they can consume roughage feeds, have a quick gestation period, a high dressing percentage, and a low purchase price.

However, proper nutrition is a key component of efficient rabbit production (Standford 1979). No rabbit is so good that poor nutrition won’t spoil it, and no rabbit is so horrible that good nutrition won’t make it better.
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When it is discovered that the biggest expense in raising rabbits is nutrition, proper feeding becomes of the utmost significance to the rabbit producer. A poorly fed rabbit cannot deliver its best performance.

The type or quality of the feed is more crucial than the quantity since poor nutrition leads to delayed growth, ineffective reproduction, and illness susceptibility in the animals.

According to Aduku and Olukosi (1990), the ideal digestible energy range for rabbits in the tropics is between 10.00 to 10.46 MJ/Kg. However, the digestible energy (DE) level found by these researchers is comparable to the 10.46 MJ/Kg digestible energy (DE) level suggested by NRC (1977) for growing rabbits in temperate regions.

For rabbits to function at their best in the tropics, Aduku and Olukosi (1990) also suggested a range of 2390–2500 Kcal/Kg of energy and a crude protein level of 12–17%. According to Fielding (1991), the ideal crude protein (CP) range for developing rabbits is between 16 and 18%.

The use of unusual substances in the formulation of livestock feeds has recently attracted considerable interest. According to Standford (1979), rabbits may survive on a variety of different meals.

As a result, it’s important to look at alternative feed sources like Moringa oleifera, whose leaves are widely utilised as animal feed.

In nations like Senegal, Niger, Kenya, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Gambia, Malawi, India, Spain, the United States, and Germany, among others, the leaves, stems, roots, and other components of the Moringa oleifera plant are frequently used as animal feeds (Fugile, 14 1999). Its potential as an addition to animal feed, meanwhile, has not been adequately studied in Nigeria.

The multifunctional browsing plant Moringa oleifera has advantageous traits. Man consumes the leaves and green, young pods as vegetables because they are high in carotene and ascorbic acid and have a favourable amino acid profile (Makkar and Becker 1996).

It is also used as livestock feed, and according to Sutherland et al. (1990), Sarwatt et al. (2002), and Kimoro (2002), its twigs have noticeable crude protein levels ranging from 26 to 27 percent and are particularly appealing to ruminants.

According to Fuglie (1999), Moringa oleifera leaves and stems have a high bioavailability, making them a superior feed for cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and rabbits.

Methionine and cysteine, two sulfur-containing amino acids that are frequently deficient in the majority of animal feeds, are abundant in the leaves of Moringa oleifera (Maroyi, 2006).

For the production of tilapia fish, moringa oleifera leaves have also been employed as an alternate protein source (Becker et al., 2002).

According to Mathur (2006), feeding Moringa oleifera leaves and green stems to calves can boost milk output by 43–65% and daily weight growth by up to 32%. According to Onimisi et al. (2007),

adding up to 30% of Moringa oleifera leaf meal to a rabbit’s diet won’t have a negative impact on the animal’s ability to grow. According to Kakengi et al. (2007), laying birds can consume up to 20% of moringa oleifera without experiencing any negative effects.
15
The authors continued by saying that Moringa oleifera leaf meal is a better diet for monogastric animals due to its high pepsin and total soluble protein content.

The fresh leaves of Moringa oleifera, especially in the north of Nigeria, are consumed as vegetables, the roots are used as medicines, and the stems and branches are used to mark property lines, field boundaries, and home fences (Muyibi and Evison, 1994).

The fact that Moringa oleifera plants are widely distributed throughout the nation as natural pasture is a strong indicator that the plant can be effectively employed to address the feed millers’ existing issues with a lack of protein sources.

Similar to many other developing nations, Nigeria is now dealing with a lack of and high price for conventional feeds for chickens, rabbits, and other animals, with protein sources of both plant and animal origin accounting for the majority of the cost.

In order to determine how much Moringa oleifera can supplement or entirely replace other plant protein sources in animal meals, further research is required.

1.1 Purposes
This study looked into how weaner rabbits responded to diets that contained varying amounts of Moringa oleifera leaf meal. The following were the study’s particular goals:

i. To evaluate how well weaner rabbits grew after being fed graded amounts of Moringa oleifera leaf meal.
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ii. To assess how the diets affected the rabbits’ carcass features.

iii. To find out the rabbits’ haematological characteristics after being fed Moringa oleifera leaf diet.

iv. To calculate the financial impact of feeding rabbits graded amounts of dietary Moringa oleifera leaves.

1.2 Justification Of The Study
The need to maximise the effective use of non-conventional feedstuffs has become necessary due to the high cost of protein feedstuff for livestock feeding as a result of the scarcity of feedstuffs like fishmeal, groundnut cake, and soya bean meal as well as the high competition that exists between man and animals for the conventional feed stuffs.

Reduce the amount of these pricey feedstuffs and replace them with less expensive non-traditional protein feedstuff, such as Moringa oleifera. This will significantly lower the cost of producing rabbit diets, making them more affordable for rabbit growers.

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