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A CRITIQUE OF DAVID HUME EMPIRICISM

CHAPITRE ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The pursuit of knowledge that is both absolute and certain has been ongoing. However, there has been a significant epistemological tradition based primarily on human experience from at least the time of Aristotle, which is not aimed towards the prospect of gaining absolute knowledge.

This tradition exemplifies the philosophy of empiricism. Empiricists say that it is irrational to aim for absolute and all-encompassing knowledge, especially since the ability to increase practical knowledge through slower but more reliable techniques is readily available.

Empiricists are satisfied with constructing a system of knowing that has a high likelihood of being true, even if absolute certainty cannot be guaranteed.

David Hume is a radical empiricist who has distinguished himself as a consistent and coherent radical empiricist throughout the history of epistemology and metaphysics.

According to him, the only true knowledge is experimental knowledge, and any concept that is not accessible through sense perception is only speculative reasoning.

Quantity and number are the only abstract objects of abstract science or demonstration, and all attempts to extend this more perfect species of knowledge beyond these confines are just sophistry and delusion.1

He asks for a book-burning campaign of any metaphysical work with ideological zeal.

He declares:

What destruction must we wreak on libraries that are convinced of these (empirical) principles? If we pick any volume: of or school metaphysics, for example, do we find any abstract reasoning incorporating quantity or number?

No. Is there any experimental reasoning about matter-of-fact and existence? No. Commit it to the flames: it can only hold sophistry and illusion.2

Hume’s notion of robust sensism as a replacement for our natural and acquired scientific, metaphysical, and socio-cultural deposits causes more problems than it answers.

It destroys all scientific and philosophical foundations. It abandons us to our haphazard, sandy subjectivism of dry empiricism.

Within the context of knowledge, David Hume’s empiricism is excellent, but a constant empirist will end up destroying the fundamental foundation of knowledge. We think more than a succession of impressions, according to humanity’s epistemological, scientific, and ontological legacy.3

To reduce them to impression bundles. It is shortsighted to reduce people to bundles of sensations, as Hume would have us believe.

The preceding serves as an introduction to our research.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Hume’s notion of empiricism contains flaws. The biggest one derives from an attempt to answer the question of how trustworthy our senses are. Our senses frequently betray us.

This is true when we see a mirage, when objects change size depending on our psychological and physiological state, when we have hallucinations, and when we experience various types of illusions.

The issue is that there is no way to tell the difference between the genuine and the unreal in such instances. Mirage, for example, is a phenomenon generated by hot air in deserts or on roadways that gives the impression of seeing something, such as water, that is not there.

The challenge now is, how do we tell the difference between a true sense experience and a false or illusory sense experience?

As a result, the famous arguments from illusion arise, casting doubt on the veracity of sense experience.

1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

It has already been stated that David Hume took a radical stance on knowledge acquisition by claiming that knowledge can only be gained through sensory experience. He accomplished this by highlighting the flaws inherent in reason as a source of knowing.

The goal of this study is to explore David Hume’s perspective and to demonstrate that, while we all agree that humans gain knowledge through sense experience, sense experience alone cannot create or guarantee knowledge.

As Jacques Maritain pointed out, every philosophical system has some truth and communicates something about reality; nevertheless, some philosophies exaggerate their claims, which leads to issues. T

his was the case with David Hume, who got into this type of dilemma because, while knowledge can be acquired by sense experience, he overstated the position by claiming that knowledge can only be obtained through sense experience.

As a result, it is part of the purpose of this study to highlight as many of these issues as possible in order to demonstrate that, while sense experience leads to knowledge, knowledge does not end there because there are some limitations to the senses in epistemological procedure so that whatever information we receive through the senses is subjected to judgement before it is accepted.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

When this work is finished, we hope that it will be significant in the sense that we will have succeeded in bringing to light some of the most important aspects of David Hume’s empiricism while also pointing out some of the problems that it contains.

The study will also be useful to students who want to pursue research on David Hume’s empiricism because it will provide them with some insight into the nature of Hume’s empiricism.

However, it is important to note that this work should not be interpreted as the sum total of Hume’s empiricism. However, we were unable to cover the references.

That appear towards the end of the task will thus suffice to guide or redirect students to where information on those topics will be acquired.

This work will be of tremendous value to those who are not doing works on David Hume’s Empiricism; to non-philosophers who may be reading for knowledge acquisition or pleasure, as the approach that will be used here and the selection of works will not be difficult to grasp.

1.5 SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY

The title of this work already indicates that it is concerned with delivering a critique of David Hume’s empiricism. However, just as in any critical study, we will not go right into the criticism; instead, we will have a guide or emphasis as to what to criticise.

Hume’s empiricism serves as a guide because, in order to criticise it, we must first provide his empiricism in order to explain what it involves. After we’ve discovered the nature of Hume’s Empiricism, we’ll know how to anchor our criticism to the challenges we’ll encounter.

1.6 METHODOLOGY

The critical study method will be used in this assignment. Because the essay is about David Hume’s empiricism, the technique will be to first offer a comprehensive overview of empiricism.

Following that, we shall concentrate on Hume’s concept of subject matter empiricism. We will thus begin to criticise when we have shown these.

However, for the sake of ease, we will divide our criticism into two parts. The first part will be to offer the criticisms levelled against Hume’s empiricism by others, because we are well aware that Hume’s empiricism has been attacked over the years.

As a result, the second phase of the criticism will be our own. We shall highlight, as best we can, some of the issues that Hume’s empiricism is plagued with as a result of his radical viewpoint, and we will base our attacks on these.

1.7 LITERATURE REVIEW

Our goal here is to educate the reader on some of the literature used in this work. But, first and foremost, David Hume’s book is fundamental literature.

In his book, “An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding,” edited by Eric Steinberg and published by Hacket Publishing Company, Indianapolis in 19774,

David Hume was determined to show that an inquiry, the objects of human reason will be discovered to include only ideas and facts. These are the only two categories into which any specific information can be classified.

All numerical concerns are intuitively certain and hence fall under “relations of ideas,” whereas anything discoverable from experience falls under “matters of fact.”

In another book, “David Hume and the Problem of Reason; Recovering – the Human Sciences” (published by Yale University Press in 1990),5,

John Danford explained how scepticism about the ability of reason to lead to knowledge acquisition led to Hume’s position, which was to demonstrate that when reason is cut loose or severed from experience, it can only generate irresolution and confusion.

Edward Caird demonstrates Hume’s statements regarding the passivity of the mind in knowledge acquisition through the “association of ideas” in his work, A Critical Account of Kant’s Philosophy, published by James Maclehose in 18766.

The mind is shown here as not actively dealing with given materials to come up with knowledge, but as finding certain natural relations or associative principles in the very data of sensation by virtue of which one idea calls up another and thus presents a clear picture of something to the mind.

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WOMEN EMPOWERMENT: A PHILOSOPHICAL APPRAISAL

CHAPITRE ONE

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Women’s empowerment is a human right that is fundamental to development and the attainment of the millennium development objectives. There is historical evidence to suggest that women face discrimination all around the world, owing to the widespread perception that women are inferior to males.

There is ample evidence in the philosophical community of disparaging attitudes towards female scholars such as Aristotle, Nietzsche, Hegel, and Descartes. Most women face discrimination in the performance of some duties, not because of their inability to do the action, but because of their gender.

This essay is intended to highlight and evaluate women’s subordinate position in our society. In this chapter, we will define empowerment, discrimination, and the various dimensions of female discrimination, such as the physiological and psychological aspects of female discrimination.

In chapter two, we will cover the role of women in society, including the family, labour market, and education, as well as the frequently asked topic, “Are men and women equal?”

In chapter three, we will look at the effects of gender discrimination on society’s well-being and the importance of women’s empowerment in contemporary society.

In chapter four, the summary, conclusion, and proposal will be fully expressed. This effort will assist us in determining the worth of women and the benefits of their empowerment to the development of society.

1.2 CONCEPT CLARIFICATION

1. Independence

According to the BBC English definition, “empowerment is when someone is given authority or power to do something.” Again, it is described as giving someone the authority or power to act. It means having greater control over their lives or having more power to act.

It also implies to grant authority or power to authorise, as well as to give strength and confidence. It is within your legal rights to act. Being empowered is having the authority, confidence, and strength to act.

Women’s empowerment refers to their ability to control and direct events that impact them. It is the providing of enough opportunities for women to achieve their potential and contribute to the development of nations and the globe as a whole.

It is the provision of a favourable environment and opportunity for women to contribute their fair share to a nation’s social, political, and economic development; it is the ability to mobilise resources to generate constructive social reforms. Women’s empowerment results in authority and power to behave in the same way as their male counterparts.

2. Discrimination

The Oxford English Dictionary defines discrimination as “the recognition of differences between people and things or the treatment of one person or group as worse or better than others.”2 It is unjust to treat someone differently because of their religion, race, or other personal characteristics.

It is the practise of treating one individual or group of people as less familial or as poorly as another person or group. It also refers to the ability to recognise and comprehend the distinction between one object and another, as well as sound judgement or taste.

Discrimination is a sociological word that refers to the treatment of a person belonging to a specific group based simply on class or category. Discrimination is the intentional exclusion of one group from opportunities offered to another. It entails limiting and restricting members of one group, as well as rejection.

It is the skill or power to see fine distinctions or make fine distinctions. It is a treatment or regard based on a group or class rather than individual merit. It refers to any event in which someone is treated unfavourably because of their traits.

Women discriminate against women, men discriminate against men, women discriminate against men, and men discriminate against women.

In the course of this work, I’d want to talk about gender discrimination. Women have been discriminated against in practically every aspect of their lives. Though there is prejudice against women, women discriminate against themselves.

In certain cases, it is the woman who does not want to give way to her fellow lady. Some stereotypical women believe that their place is in the kitchen, not in government. However, we will explore discrimination against women by their male counterparts at the cultural, political, religious, economic, and educational levels.

Sex discrimination is the deferential treatment of men and women based on their category membership, gender, without regard for individual differences in aptitude, competence, inclination, and commitment. Women hold lesser positions and are considered the weaker sex.

They are the recipients of the less valuable (or non-existent) societal good. As a philosopher, Aristotle considered women as naturally weak and licentious. Women, to him, are “unfinished men.”3 From an early age, women are taught that the world of independent achievement is out of reach for them.

And that their primary duty is to please and serve men. In our society, males are allowed and encouraged to take risks in order to complete a project. Men are expected to be rational, imaginative, and creative, but women are thought to be less so.

Women are always under the direct or indirect influence of men. Their bigotry begins in the family. They are expected to be dependant on the males and to do as they are directed or ordered to do, which is referred to as “the act of being submissive.”

They are considered second-class citizens. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women defines discrimination as “any distinction, exclusion, or restriction made on the basis of sex with the effect or purpose of impeding or obstructing the recognition, enjoyment, or exercise of one’s rights.” Women face discrimination in the following ways.

A) Society

Women have historically been discriminated against. Men are thought to be more analytical, aggressive, and focused in success, whereas women are thought to be nurturing, compassionate, better at child bearing, and worse at exciting decision making. Women are considered the second sex in our culture.

husbands act as though they are the subjects, treating women as objects, abdicating responsibility for their own lives. For example, in Nigeria, husbands can offer their wives as entertainers to their visitors. Dobkin claims that “naturally derived women choose and force them to attend to the interests of others, husbands, parents, and lads in place of their own.”

4 society expects women to marry on time; else, she will find it difficult to marry later in life. I came to the conclusion that, culturally or otherwise, girls are like milk that, once split, cannot be scooped up. They are not required to select a partner. Women are culturally desired by men for sex and child bearing.

Religion (B)

Most religions discriminate against women, either directly or indirectly, or promote their discrimination. Women, according to Christianity and certain other religions, should be subordinate to men. “—- and they desire shall be to thy husband, and he shall overthrow thee,” says Genesis 3:16b.

In both Christianity and Islam, five women are barred from holding the post of priest. Women outnumber males, but they face the most discrimination. Rev. D. Timothy Labouf of Watertown Church removed Mary Lambert as a Sunday school teacher for an adult class after she had been on the job for almost 50 years, citing 2 Timothy 2:11 and 12.

Women are expected to learn in complete silence and subordination. Women are not expected to exercise power over men; instead, they must remain mute. Women, according to Aristotle, are unfinished men.

c) Governmental

Women have abilities, potentials, intelligence, brilliance, and intelligence; nonetheless, women are still expected to fill lesser positions rather than significant ones such as president and vice president. They are seen as inferior to men and should be treated as second-class citizens.

They should not seek positions at the highest levels of government because they will not be considered. It is claimed that this has something to do with patriarchal systems in society. Politically, women excel at financial consideration and self-interest engagement.

Only three women have served as governors in the United States of America. In Nigeria, a woman was appointed Governor for three months. None of them have been presidents or vice presidents. They are, to some extent, barred from holding political office.

D) Financial

Most women are today educated, as opposed to ancient periods when women were not thought to be persons who should be educated. But educated women are counselled and persuaded to stay because they are expected to work in women’s jobs, and one wonders if men and women truly do distinct jobs.

But what is the current cause of employment segregation? Is it because women are not considered as men capable of performing jobs traditionally assigned to men?

Women are sexually harassed on the job. For example, the CEDAW (convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women) was formed to fight against all forms of discrimination, with the goal of liberating women from the stereotyped positions that they have been forced into and preventing their development.

Women are economically disadvantaged; nonetheless, women have indirectly contributed to increased productivity and long-term economic growth through unpaid effort, both at home raising children and in their communities. Women are not afforded more economic chances.

Women are perceived to be economically incapable of producing commodities. They also lack capital. This is obvious in men’s dominance of practically every aspect of the country’s economy, including import and export, manufacturing, transportation, agriculture, and commerce.

As a result, women’s engagement in public affairs is significantly diminished since they lack the material foundation for political and socioeconomic self-assertiveness6.

1.3 Different Aspects of Women’s Discrimination

1. Physiology

Women have faced discrimination due of their physical characteristics. Women are seen to be physically weaker than males, and their fate is considered to be founded in their physical nature or can be traced back to biology. Women’s attributes are used against them.

For example, in Oragite, Anambra state, where I am from, a woman is not permitted to climb a pal or tree due to her bodily features or characteristics. Women’s physical characteristics make them appear less ideal in the view of their male counterparts.

According to Aristotle, women are cooler than men and consequently less perfect, similar to sterile men. Women are seen as having a specific incapacity.

2) Psychology

Women face physiological discrimination. A woman’s mental qualities or attitude is said to be illogical.

Woman, according to Aristotle, is more compassionate than man. More easily moved to tears, while also being more jealous, querulous, and more likely to sell and strike.

She is more despondent and less hopeful than the guy, has less guilt or self-esteem, speaks more falsely, is more dishonest, and has a more retentive memory7. Women are thought to be non-thinking beings.

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FEMINIST THEORY OF LITERACY CRITICISM

CHAPITRE ONE

INTRODUCTION

Purpose Of The Study

The goal of this research is to demonstrate Julie Okoh’s The Trials as a feminist book.

Scope Of The Study

This study is limited to Julie Okoh’s novel The Trials. The study examines the basic memorable of a feminist text, which are strong memorable female characters, portrayal of women as having innate goodness and genuine concern for the family, especially the children;

portrayal of women as bringing instrumental to positive change in improving the society economically; and finally, the presence of power relations and calls for change in the status’ of women as critical responses of women to a society dominated by men-folk.

Methodology

This work is qualitative, with the primary source being Julie Okoh’s text The Trials. Journal papers and books were also used as sources.

Theoretical Background

The feminist philosophy of literacy criticism serves as the foundation for this study.

According to Ann B. Dobie (a writer and theorist who wrote Theory into Practise), while the feminist movement dates back to the nineteenth century, feminist lenses did not emerge until the early 1960s.

Feminism, according to the Encyclopaedia Americana 1920’s, is a collection of ideas and a movement focused at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights for men and women.

This includes attempting to equalise educational and career opportunities for women (Wikipedia “feminism” collier new Encyclopaedia 1921).

Feminism is thus an ideology movement that advocates for men and women’s economic, social, and political equality in society. As a result, if frowns at male subjugation of women.

Feminism is a philosophy that seeks to recognise women’s power and right to shape and change a new society. It demands that women not be evaluated based on their gender.

It aims to remedy the condition in society in which a woman cannot occupy particular positions and jobs or have a say in state issues due to her gender.

Feminism, according to Judith Burdick, is an unequivocal and unambiguous rejection of the way of life generated by powerful coercive norms. She goes on to say:

“That advocacy for the advancement of women’s rights and equality with men in the social, political, and economic spheres (588).”Feminism asserts that a woman has the right and independence from male dominance to determine her own destiny.

According to this belief, women are capable of making their own decisions, knowing what is beneficial for them as well as what is bad for them. This movement also advocated for women to break new ground and allow themselves to be trampled by men.

Feminism is defined in the book encyclopedia…..(vol ii) as

“The belief that women should have equal economic, political, and social rights as men.” The movement could also be referred to as the Women’s Liberation Movement or the Women’s Movement” (46).

Brudwick also believes that feminism is out to undermine the ideology, but it is built in religious, economic, or biological supremacy over women.

“Is a psychological revaluation based on women’s insistence on their fundamental right to choose and be judged as individuals.”Furthermore, women’s concentrated struggle to end their plight demonstrated to the world that their contribution to societal development would be barren if they were socially, politically, or economically deprived in any way.

As a result, in order for peace and stability to rule, they must tread like their masculine counterpart. This defence and demand established the groundwork for feminism. It is dedicated to eliminating gender inequity and supporting women’s rights, interests, and issues in society.

Feminism began with the arrival of several wollstonecraftsmen. A victory for women’s rights. In the essay, she describes how “women are stripped of virtue that should clothe humanity, then decked with artificial graces that enable them to exercise a brief tyranny.” (142)

According to that phrase, a woman’s basic worth stems from her shared humanity and does not depend on anything else.

The first feminist movement or thought in Nigeria dates back to the Aba Women Roit (1926), an event aimed at women’s emancipation. Aside from the Nigeria event, there is also the Beijing Women Conference in China, which focuses on the condition of women and the actions required to improve their lot.

The effort to abolish female discrimination, stereotyping, and male dominance should not be viewed a one-man race, but rather a community struggle. The male rules over the have-nots, while women are degraded and reduced to objects of men’s passion and pleasure.

As a result, feminism evolved in order to eradicate these vices in society. However, because Africa has yet to witness radical feminism, Alice Waker writes in her book The Nature of Black Feminism:

“Black feminism is dedicated to the survival and wholeness of all people, male and female.”(231)

Black feminism is committed to the survival of all, rather than being a one-sided or selfish endeavour.

According to Okey Okwechine, “equality to rights and opportunity for both men and women is essential for a healthy society” (209). This basically means that for a society to progress, everyone, regardless of gender, should have equal support.

The goal and scope of the feminism movement are separated into two parts, whereby we all have basic common aims as women regardless of colour, class, or culture. Others differ from place to country according to race, class, and culture.

Initially, the feminist movement focused on achieving legal equality, particularly the ability to vote. In 1839, women in New Zealand were the first6 to argue for and obtain this right, followed by women in Australia,

various European nations, and eventually the United States. In the early 1900s, a new concern for economic and social equality evolved, revitalising the movement.

A feminist organisation fought to eradicate gender discrimination in education and employment. Many women entered professions like as law, medicine, politics, business, and other male-dominated fields.

The feminist movement attempted to remove laws and practises that enforced men’s supremacy over women and women’s inferiority status through discrimination in matters of sex and child bearing. In other words, feminists advocated for greater access to birth control information as well as the legalisation of abortion in the same countries.

They worked to challenge the conventional belief that women are weak, docile, and dependant; that women are less ratio and more emotional than men; and that women live to please men.

In sections of Africa, feminist movements aimed at basic roles such as removing excessive bride prices, preferring male offspring over female children, and abuse of widows, among other things.

Another feminist goal is to improve women’s image and demonstrate the need to be unsatisfied with their traditional roles of being subjugated to male dominance, and that women can participate equally with men in all areas of human endeavour. Also, to enable all women to realise their full potential.

According to Ann B Dobie’s book Theory into Practise, femimist criticism can be explored from three different perspectives, which are: study of defences, research of female power, and study of female experience.

Feminist critics interested in discovering the difference between male and female writing work from the concept that gender determines everything, including value system and language, in the study of difference.

The concept of gender difference has arisen in an assumption of feminine inferiority in the writing of men and women, which analyses questions such as:

Is the writer writing in a genre that is typical of male or female writers of that time or period?

Do you think the piece’s content is usual or uncommon, and does the voice sound typical of a male or female writer? Is it subjective or objective, personal or impersonal, tacit or explicit?

In addressing the above question in connection to Julie Okoh’s principal text The Trials, it is evident that the genre of the text is drama, very brief and concise, which is typical of the genre of Nigerian writers in the twenty-first century.

The text’s substance is typical of a female writer because it emphasises the importance of female empowerment.

Because the protagonist (Ibiso) is female, the voice is typical of a female writer; it advocates for female empowerment and equal rights for men and women in economic, social, and political matters: This mindset can be observed in Ibiso, who provides for her family despite economic adversity.

Because the narrative is not limited to Africa, but to the entire world, the tone is generic and impersonal. The text The Trials is objective because it is not based on the playwright’s personal feelings.

Power imbalances are frequently mentioned by feminist critics of power. They believe that the economic system is at the basis of inequitable relationships, and they target women’s economic and social exploitation. They contend that women are oppressed.

They contend that women are oppressed by a group that actively oppresses them through its ideology. Michele Barrett, writing from a maximalist perspective, contends that the organisation of the family and household is tied to the division of labour in society. The term refers to the social division of labour.

The educational system and the cultural roles of men and women. According to Ann B. Dobie, the following questions should be explored while looking for the study of power in a book.

When do you notice power disparities among the characters?

Who are the powerful and who are the weak? Are the latter women or members of a minority?

In the text, how is labour divided between men and women?

Is the text opposed to or accepting of a social system that denies equal treatment to all?

In responding to the above quest, make use of the text The Trials.

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A CRITIQUE OF WIREDU’S CONCEPT OF TRUTH

CHAPITRE ONE

1.0 THEORIES of TRUTH

My essay focuses on Kwasi Wiredu’s epistemological convictions regarding the problem of truth. My goal in this essay is to critically assess all of Wiredu’s arguments in support of his claim that there is no such thing as truth that is distinct from opinion.

I submit that by claiming that truth is nothing more than just opinion, Wiredu fails to refute the objective nature of truth. I also believe that Wiredu fails to make truth objective. Despite his declared efforts to explain the contexts in which he use terminology such as “truth” and “opinion,” this remains the case.

As a result, this article has been broken into four chapters so that I can better comprehend the context of Wiredu’s perspective as well as his main thesis.

In chapter one, I will address the concept of truth in traditional Western epistemology in general. In this chapter, I will attempt to analyse briefly the essential propositions of the two primary objectivist theories of truth, namely the semantic and correspondence theories of truth.

As well as the two non objectivist theories of truth, namely the coherence and pragmatic theories of truth. And, as we will see, Wiredu’s position is neither entirely pragmatic nor entirely consistent. He just confirms both views to varying degrees.

As we will see in this chapter, Wiredu believes that truth is coherence. He also believes that truth is “warranted assertibility,” which he bases on Deweyian pragmatic ideas.

In chapter two, I will go over Wiredu’s theory on truth, which states that to be true is merely to have an opinion. Prior to this, his formal critique of the correspondence theory of truth, which is the most strong depiction of all objectivist conceptions of truth, would be considered. I’ll also go over his broad argument, which claims that “to be is to be known.”

In the third chapter, I will discuss the criticisms raised against Wiredu’s viewpoint by three modern African philosophers, Joseph Omoregbe, P.O Bodunrin, and Abdu Ghaniyi Bello, before considering Wiredu’s responses to some of the critics.

In chapter four, I will point out and critically analyse the weaknesses in Wiredu’s method that I believe exist, and then proceed to show my own convictions about how truth should be conceptualised and treated.

1.1 THE NATURE AND TRADITIONAL THEORIES OF TRUTH

The word “truth” derives from the Greek word “Alenthia” and the Latin word “Veritas,” both of which signify some type of accord between thinking and its objects, knowing and that which is known.

Truth, in its most basic form, is the agreement of conformity between what is said and what is. According to Aristotle, truth is the most important factor in judging. A correct judgement is one that assigns or denies a predicate to a subject based on what reality demands.

1In terms of the condition under which a statement is said to be true or untrue, a true account of the nature of truth can be given. The same cannot be said of people: truth in this case is a derivative concept of truth. Furthermore, truth and falsehood are not valid candidates for sentences as such;

that is, unless a statement is employed to say whether or not anything is true or untrue, it is not a candidate for truth. Thus, truth and falsity are attributable to assertions, and these claims are invariably expressions of beliefs.

2Assume a statement is true. At the very least, the following questions can be raised: what do we mean when we declare a statement is true? Is a property being assigned? What are the necessary and sufficient conditions for its truth, i.e., it is true if and only if and only if? These are all conceivable candidates for what is meant by the generic question “What is truth”?

Truth might be considered a consequential property of a statement. That is to say, it could be a characteristic that statements have by virtue of the fact that other things are true of them

3. In such situation, the philosophy of truth should determine what these additional factors are that are required for a statement to be true.

All of this has something to do with the correspondence theory of truth.

However, numerous theories have been proposed in addition to this one. The absolute idealist proposed a coherence theory of truth in which

“The whole” is the sole absolute truth and anything less than the whole can only aspire to degrees of truth. Validation procedures4 confirm knowledge here.

Williams James advocated for a “pragmatic theory of truth” in which the problem of truth is one of welfare economics, because a truthful assertion is one that proves the best in the long run.

Tarski attempted to overcome the issues of self-reference by stating that truth can only be defined in a metalanguage, giving rise to the “Semantic theory of truth.”

F.P Ramsey believed he had solved the problem of truth by pointing out that ‘P’ and ‘P’ is true mean the same thing and thus that is true” is redundant; hence the redundancy theory of truth for now”.

The main objectivistic theory of truth, primarily the semantic and correspondence theories, will be discussed in detail.

1.2 SEMANTIC THEORY OF THE TRUTH

This thesis is re-presented in Alfred Tarski’s fervent works on the problem of truth. According to this theory, a syntactical system ‘L’ becomes a semantical system when the rules in its meta language ‘M’ specify the necessary and sufficient truth condition for each sentence of the system.

These rules, which are frequently incorporated in recursive definitions, lead to a definition of truth. And Tarski refers to the “Material Criterion” as a prerequisite of sufficiency for such a formulation.

The schema specifies the following criterion: X is true if and only if P cover P stand, for any phrase in the chosen language, and X for the name of the sentence.5

Tarski further emphasises that the concept of truth must be not only materially adequate but also formally correct, i.e. it must not lead to contradiction.

Using Tarski’s example, if P stands for show is white, then the equivalence schema “T” while d is true. “If and only if snow is white, the sentence show is white is true.”

6. However, Tarski believes that the schema does not provide a complete definition of truth. Tarski regards it as a given essential condition of truth.

7. From this vantage point, it appears that Tarski’s semantic theory of truth is a variant of the correspondence theory of truth. It attributes truth with an objective nature, implying that truth is an objective standard against which any language or statement is judged to be true or false.

As a result, the various critiques levelled at Tarski’s theory revolve on “correspondence with fact.” Ideals are inherent to all objectivist theories of truth, although as Tarski correctly observes, his theories have “rehabilitated the correspondence theory of absolute or objective”.

8. Similarly, though Tarski attempted to cover all of his theory with the blanket of a meta-language, saying that truth cannot be adequately expressed in natural language, it is true that Tarski theory applies to English, as Donald Davidson observes.

In general, semantic theory has come to be characterised as ‘Objectivistics,’ and is thought to be a kind of the correspondence theory of truth.

1.3. CORRESPONDENCE THEORY OF THE TRUTH

Wiredu attempts to illustrate his argument that truth is opinion by rejecting the objectivistic theory of truth with a tale. According to this view, it makes sense to claim that a man’s opinion can change, but it is lunacy to say that the truth can change.

Once a preposition is true, it remains true indefinitely. In other words, truth is timeless and eternal9. According to Wiredu, the objectivistic notion of truth is “an intellectualised submission of the primitive passions of the soul.” He puts it like way:

“I must admit that the objectivist view of truth of ten strives is an intellectual concession to some of the more primal impulses of the human soul10.

The term “correspondence” is widely used among modern writers, owing partly to the impact of Bertrand Russell on the formation of correspondence between belief and fact

11. This is in contrast to the absolute idealist, who believes that truth is defined by coherence.

The correspondence theory is an objectivist theory in the sense that it argues that the truth of a statement is independent of our judgement and “consists in a relationship, according to behaviour, which holds between statements”.

12. A quick historical overview would be helpful to properly comprehend our subject. Demonstrate how different people interpreted the theory at different eras.

13. The origin of the term “Correspondence,” which is used to indicate the relationship between thought and reality in which the truth of thought appears to be medical, appears to be medical. When Aquinas stated, “Truth is the adequation of things and the intellect,” he used the term in this way.

Other scholastics have stated that a preposition is true when and only when the object denoted is as it is. This is the key point in the correspondence theory of truth.

14. The key recommendation of this idea, according to him, is that it does not contradict many millions of the most obvious fact of truth. One such evident reality is that my friend’s notion that I have gone away on vacation will undoubtedly be correct if and only if I have gone away.

As a result, the following is implied as a necessary and sufficient condition for a belief to be true: “That is should correspond to fact.”

15. This is truth in the secondary sense. Moore is quick to point out that propositions, not acts of belief, are what are true or untrue in the main sense.

16 .We commonly state that beliefs are true or false, but this is only because the word “belief” is often used to refer to what is believed rather than what is believed.

The correspondence theory of truth also has a Russialian version. Russell begins with the concept of belief, arguing that the truth or falsity of a belief is always dependent on something outside of the belief itself. As a result, we believe that “truth consists in some form of correspondence between belief and fact.”

17. The problem with this idea, however, is that if truth is a correspondence of thinking with something outside thought, thought can never know when truth is realised.

This apparent issue led to a concerted effort among certain philosophers to attempt and identify some definition of truth that does not include in connection to anything entirely outside of belief.

The theory that truth consists in ‘coherence’ is the most important effort at a definition of this type. However, Russell uses it to criticise this theory before settling down to defend the correspondence theory.

According to Ressell, there is a significant problem with coherence. There is no reason to believe that there can only be one cohesive body of belief. As a result, we are compelled to return to correspondence with fact as being the nature of truth.

Russell believes that we must seek a theory of truth that permits truth to have an opposite, namely, falsehood. Falsehood is a quality of ideas, but it is entirely dependent on the relationship of the beliefs to outside things.

In every act of belief, there is a mind that believes, and then there are forms that believe. When a relationship exists between two or more for ms, the mind joins the words to form a complicated whole.

In Russell’s view, a belief is true when it corresponds to a certain related complex, and false when it does not. The state of truth or belief in something that does not involve beliefs or, in general, any mind at all, but merely the objects of the belief.

A mind that believes actually believes involving the mind. However, only the connection of its objectives ensures truth, and the absence of wit implies falsehood.

1.4. COHERENCE THEORY OF THE TRUTH

According to Wiredu, “a statement is true if it coheres with our system of beliefs.”19 In other words, the truth of a statement depends on the degree to which it is harmonised with a given and accepted system of ideas.

He then wonders why Wiredu keeps repeating the coherence theorist’s argument that claims are compared with other assertions rather than with experience, the world, or an independent realm of reality.” As a result, Kwasi Wiredu sees such a comparison as “mysterious, metaphysical, and so meaningless.”

20. The coherence theory of truth, which is a characteristic of the great rationalist system building metaphysicians such as Leibniz, Spinoza, Hegal, and Bradlly, further holds that a statement is considered true or false to the extent that it coheres or fails to cohere with a system whose elements are related to each other by ties of logical implication as the elements in a system of pure mathematics.

In mathematics, for example, the truth or falsity of a theorem in Geometry will be determined by its consistency with the principles of the particular system in use.

21. They believe that this notion of reality, above all, should not be interpreted as making truth relative to individual perception. Rather, it emphasised repeatedly that truth must be constructed in relation to the systems in which the Item of knowledge is perceived.

Many proponents of this coherence theory believe that every component of a system implies every other member. As a result, determining if a statement is true is equivalent to determining its coherence with a system of other assertions.

22. According to the logical positivist who supports this idea, the current culture’s framework with which ALL TRUE statements must cohere. On the other hand, proponents of coherence argue that a statement cannot be declared true unless it fits into a single comprehensive account of the cosmos, which in turn constitutes a cohesive system.

According to coherent epistemology, the logical text for truth in the accurate and credible science of pure mathematics and related science is a statement cohering with some other assertions, and finally with the rules of its own system.

In this book, which is not only practical, for a statement to cohere with another, it must be logically deducible from them. This coherence is what it means to call a proposition true. For example, proponents of this theory argue that if blue were divorced in our minds from all the colours in the spectrum to which it is related by likeness and difference, all the shades within its own range.

And all the definition it possesses by virtue of being thought of as quality rather than as substances or a relation, we would not even understand, let alone know the truth or falsity of a statement about something blue.

23. Furthermore, we would not only know the truth of such a statement, but it also cannot be properly said to have its meaning of truth value independent of its relationship to other statements.

We still retain the doctrine of degree of truth inside the context of the coherence theory of truth.” According to the doctrine, if the truth of any given statement is bound up with and can only be seen with the truth of all the statements of the system, and this is bound up with the whole system,

then individual statements are only partially false, and only the whole system is wholly true. As a result, Braddly contends that truth must bear the mark of expansion and all inconclusiveness.

24. Although no definitive evaluation of this theory is intended, I will now proceed and seek to finalise the amount of compatibility that exists between this truth theory and that of Wiredu before pointing out the core theory.

Given that we are not engaging in any sort of extensive evaluation here, it will now appear that, while Wiredu may not be rightly conceived as an absolute coherent, his theory is sympathetic to most of the tenets inherent in coherence epistemology. The challenge I’ll be addressing now is identifying the fundamental flows that exist in this theory.

According to Reuben Abel, the fatal flaw of the coherence theory of truth is that “there is no way to locate a coherent system d of proposition to reality”

25. Astrology, delusions of the sick, and mathematics all constitute coherent systems, yet we do not accept them as true. Furthermore, scientific progress frequently shatters previous coherent systems.

Newton’s geocentrism, Kepler’s heliocentrism, Darwinian evolution, and Eintainmean relativity all tossed traditional systems out the window.

As a result, the various concept of a totally coherent system begins to appear ludicrous and requires substantial change. As a result, while we accept coherence as a prerequisite for truth, it does not suffice as a definition of truth.

According to Bertrand Russell, this is because there appears to be competing reasons to believe that only one coherent body of belief is possible.

26. As Ayer puts it succinctly: “there may be any number of systems of statements, each of which is internally consistent, but any two of which are incompatible with one another.”

1.5. PRAGMATICS THEORY OF THE TRUTH

27. Truth is considered as relational rather than absolute in pragmatic epistemology. It is never in pristine condition. Either immutable or eternal. Rather, it can shift from generation to generation. According to Wiredu, “truth is inevitably bound to point of view, on better truth is view from some point, and there are as many truths as there are points of view.”

28. According to pragmatists such as Scudders Pierce, Williams James, and John Dewey, man should be concerned with things or occurrences that can be observed by the senses rather than the abstract and speculative.

As a result, the truth criteria must be traceable to experience. Williams James asserts:

Truth in our ideas and beliefs means that ideas (which are but a part of our experience) become true insofar as they assist us in getting into satisfactorily relation with other parts of our experience…

Any idea that will carry us prosperously from one part of our experience linking things satisfactorily, working securely simpling saving labour: true for just so much, true in so far truth instrumentally.

29. This quote from James Terminate in a term that encompassed the instrument nature of pragmatism, prompting some philosophers to attribute the classification, instrumentalism, to broad pagmatic philosophy. According to James, the function of mind is to generate ideas in order to meet individual interests rather than to reproduce or picture reality.

Thus, on pragmatic criteria, if the hypothesis of God, for example, satisfactorily in the broadest meaning of the world, it is true. However, we should be primarily interested in Dewey because Wiredu has a strong affinity with his notion of truth.

For Dewey, ideas become true when the verifying facts they promise honour their “draught upon existence.” The idea that truth exists before to and apart from inquiry is worthless in Dewey’s mind because truth is significant to him. “Truth happens to be an idea” when it is validated or a warranted assertion.

Dewey regards truth from the standpoint of verification and sets it at the end of all investigations. As a result, Wiredu’s tense articulation of Dewey’s positon is that truth is warranted assertibility.

30. This section emphasises that truth is what logical inquiry allows us to affirm. Truth is considered as an end product of practise rather than a prior premise. In “Dewey words”

That which guides is true…

“The true hypothesis is the one that works, and truth is an abstract applied to the collection of cases, actual, anticipated, and desired, that receive confirmation in their consequences.”

31. The pragmatists’ consequences thus reach into the fundamental heart of meaning and truth.

Dewey proposes in this “Essay in Experimental Logic” that the term pragmatic only refers to the rule of all reflective attention to “Consequences:” for final meaning and text.

In a nutshell, the pragmatist approach to truth is as follows: A notion is true not because it agrees with some experimental reality, as most traditionalists believe, but because it works fine. That is, it has legitimate repercussions when applied to certain contexts.

It is wrong not because it misrepresents reality, but because it does not perform properly when employed. The utility of a notion in practise, then, is truth. A preposition is proved or falsified by demonstrating its usability or non-usability in action.

It is true, as Bernard Russell and Arthur Lukejor, among others, point out, that the notion of truth as what works is problematic because the definition of “Workability” is uncertain. Brief cans function in two ways at the same time.

Also, the only thing that all of our real beliefs have in common is that they “pay”. Williams appears to imply that the consequences of considering such beliefs are preferable to those of rejecting them.

However, as Russell points out, it is extremely impossible to predict the consequences of any belief. How can we tell whether the effects of believing in the Islamic religion are generally positive or negative?

The concept that nothing should be regarded true except what is experienceable and empirically verifiable is also shared by all pragmatics. However, it is also true that stating that S is P becomes true does not imply that S is P is verified. It can only signify that S has turned into P.

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IMPACTS OF CHRISTIANITY

ABSTRACT

Christianity, as a religion, has had an impact on all aspects of Nigerian life. A comprehensive examination of the Nnewi people’s religious history reveals that Christianity has infiltrated both urban and rural Nnewi society. The purpose of this research is to investigate the role of Christianity in the development of the Nnewi nation.

A brief introduction to the lifestyle of the Nnewi people prior to the arrival of Christianity will also be provided to aid comprehension of the project. The following is the task breakdown for this study:-

1 A general background study based on the objectives, methods, and definition of words.

2 The Nnewi people’s historical origins and organisational lifestyle.

3 The introduction and spread of Christianity as seen through the eyes of the Nnewi traditional context prior to Christianity.

4 The Christian religion made four contributions to the Nnewi country.

5 assessments, recommendations, and conclusions.

CHAPITRE ONE

INTRODUCTION IN GENERAL

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Since the beginning of time, Christianity has been present in various towns around the world. However, among the different Christian groups, I would choose Anglicanism. This research will thus cover the history of Christianity in Nigeria, its spread to Nnewi in Anambra State, and a case study of the Anglicans to highlight its effects.

The history of Christianity in Nigeria, particularly in Nnewi town, which is one of the towns in Igboland in Anambra State in Nigeria’s south-east, reveals both positive and bad discoveries.

Discoveries have been discovered about the inhabitants of Nnewi and their culture; they are acknowledged to have high cultural worth, which distinguishes them.

They cannot live without religion since it is a part of them. According to an old proverb, “Okpukpem bu ndum. Onye nwere Okpukpem Nwere ndum.” This translates as “My religion is my life.” “Whoever takes away my religion takes away my life.”

1 The Igbo people have a strong devotion to their faith. With the arrival of Christianity in Nigeria, particularly in Igbo country, the Igbo people’s traditional religion began to face significant obstacles. Some customary practises were abandoned when Christianity gained traction in Nnewi town.

The Portuguese introduced Roman Catholicism to Nigeria in the fifteenth century, and it was the first Christian interaction in the country. It was, however, nearly exterminated for the next 200 years until Roman Catholic missionaries came in the 1800s.

Since then, the Catholic Church has grown to almost 19 million members and adherents, primarily in the south east. The Anglican church of Nigeria presently boasts over 11 million members and adherents, indicating that the church of Nigeria (Anglican Communion) has grown rapidly since the end of the slave trade.

It is fascinating to note that Christianity and indeed Anglicanism, which began as a child’s play in Badagry and Abeokuta, have spread like wild fire to all nooks and corners of our country Nigeria in less than two centuries. Augustinian and Capuchin monks from Portugal brought Christianity to Nigeria in the 15th century.

However, it was not until 1842, when Henry Townsend of the Church Missionary Society arrived in Badagry from Freetown, Sierra Leone, that the seed of Anglicanism was fully sown.

2 The study’s context is that Christianity has been entrenched in Nigeria and its constituent states. Christianity, on the other hand, poses a challenge because of its multiple denominations, which occasionally speak in distinct voices. Christianity in Nnewi, Anambra state, is what I would research and expose in this work;

I would focus more on the Anglicans. Other topics to be covered in this work include the origins of the Nnewi people, their religion, and the activities of missionaries, as well as how they affected the Nnewi people’s traditional religion.

1.2 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES  OF STUDY –

This study intends to demonstrate the overall effects of Christianity on the Nnewi people, with a concentration on the Anglicans.

– To remove people’s faith in the powers of idol worship and to assist them in finding peace in Christianity.

– The purpose of this book is to investigate the role of Christianity in the development of the Nnewi nation.

– To explore the Anglican church’s relationship with other denominations and its emergence in the Nnewi nation.

– To investigate the origins of the Nnewi people and their religion, as well as the actions of Christian missionaries in Nnewi, Anambra state.

– To give suggestions/recommendations on how the Anglican Church of Nigeria can represent Nnewi traditional society’s living patterns.

1.3 DEFINITION OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS

In this essay, three basic categories must be defined: Christianity, Anglicans, and Traditional culture.

Christianity (1.3.1) A monotheistic system of beliefs and practises based on the Old Testament and Jesus’ teachings as incorporated in the New Testament, emphasising Jesus’ position as saviour. The Christian religion was established on Jesus of Nazareth’s life and teachings.

3 Christianity is now the world’s most widely practised religion, with over a billion adherents divided mostly between the Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Orthodox churches.

It began with Jewish followers of Jesus of Nazareth who believed he was the expected Messiah (or ‘Christ,’ but the Christian church quickly became an independent organisation, thanks primarily to St. Paul’s missionary activities.

Constantine ceased formal persecution in the Roman Empire in 313 and Theodosius I recognised it as the state religion in Theodosius I.

Most Christians believe in one God who exists in three persons (the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit) and that Jesus is God’s son who rose from the dead after being crucified; a Christian hopes to achieve eternal life after death through faith in Jesus Christ and strives to live by his teachings as recorded in the New Testament. 1.3.2 Churches of Christ The term “Anglican” implies “of England,”

however the Anglican church is found all over the world. It began in England in the sixth century, when Pope Gregory the Great dispatched St. Augustine to establish a more regulated Apostolic succession to the celtic Christians.

The Anglican Church developed as a branch of the Roman Church, but the Celtic influence was incorporated into the Roman component of the church in a variety of ways.

The Anglican church grew around the world, initially through English colonisation and then through English-speaking missionaries.

The Anglicans are those who follow these practises.

4 Because the term “church” has been misused, Billy Graham, an American evangelist of the twentieth century, says: “The Invisible Church is that larger body of believers who, down through the ages, have sincerely trusted Jesus as Lord and Saviour.”

When a person accepts Jesus Christ as his Lord and Saviour, he becomes a member of the Church. The visible church is today’s international church, made up of local Christian groups.There are both wheat and tares in it….

5 The Anglican church refers to the church of England and its worldwide branches. Anglicanism is a Christian protestant denomination. It is sometimes regarded as the bridge between Roman Catholicism and radical Protestantism.

This is because the English church maintained the early catholic ministry of bishops, priests, and deacons during the English Reformation.

The explicit rejection of the Pope, and hence of the Catholic church as an organisation, was the tipping moment that led to the formation of the Anglican church.

1.3.3 Traditional Culture This is the third term I’d like to clarify as the process progresses. In sociology, a traditional society is one that is characterised by a focus on the past rather than the future, with custom and habit playing a prominent role.

6 The term “traditional” refers to small-scale communities that are based on indigenous and often ancient cultural practises.

1.4 METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

The radical, practical approach was used for this study’s method or investigation. I would rely on quantitative and qualitative social research sources such as surveys, interviews with lay and ordained members of the Anglican church of Nigeria,

document analysis from school libraries, institutes, online research (E- library), journals, text books, and research papers. A variety of hypothetical and real-life case studies are used to explain this subject.

1.5 LIMITATIONS AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This project would concentrate on Christianity in Nnewi, Anambra State. An attempt will be made to uncover the strategies utilised by Christian missionaries (Anglicans) to establish and grow Christianity in Nnewi.

The breadth is so broad, and the interested parties among potential readers are virtually indefinitely diverse.7 Restrictions on in-depth stories/histories derived from materials.

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MACHIAVELLIANISM AND DEMOCRACY

CHAPITRE ONE

INTRODUCTION IN GENERAL

1.1 General Introduction

Machiavelli achieved worldwide acclaim for the way he conceived of and understood politics. Today, the term “Machiavellism” refers to a political environment characterised by dictatorship, authoritarianism, deception, and brutality. This is due to Machiavelli’s approach and rules for maintaining state stability.

Machiavelli develops a viewpoint that reconciles politics with warfare, and justifies the use of force, cruelties, deception, and appearance manipulation in the service of government. He was heavily influenced by the political turmoil in Florence at the time.

Furthermore, Machiavelli portrayed virtue as vice and vice versa. The politician or ruler, in his opinion, should not be a moral agent. Insofar as he preserves power, he should be less concerned with the morality of his acts.

The Machiavellian principle, by definition, considers the ultimate result of acts rather than the means employed. This creates a survival of the fittest situation. This condition undermines the notion of democracy and stifles its evolution.

Democracy, as we know it, is hailed for providing a safe haven for freedom, equality, justice, and fairness. All vestiges of Machiavellism must be avoided for any democratic organisation to thrive. This is my primary concern in this project.

I’ll investigate how the Machiavellian concept is applied in Nigerian politics. Has it made a difference, or is it causing chaos? This is the question we will address in this discussion.

1.2 Objectives Of The Study

The purpose of this book is to critically examine Machiavelli’s principles. This will consist of declaring and describing the entire content of his principles, as well as highlighting their implications.

In addition, I will ‘x-ray’ the democratic principle, examining its origins and the prerequisites for its implementation.

This verification will take place within the context of the Nigerian situation. However, the only challenge here is to apply Machiavelli’s principle to Nigeria’s democratic environment. We will examine and question about the significance of Machiavellism to democracy in Nigeria.

As well as the numerous forms in which Machiavellism has permeated the atmosphere of politics in Nigeria and other aspects of life from our independence days to the present.

Furthermore, rejecting the existence of this Machiavellian principle is unrealistic and insincere to the entire project. Many political intellectuals and philosophers have criticised this theory for its dictatorial and immoral nature. Some objected to its immorality.

In their critique of Machiavellism, Marx and Engel stated that “the true exponents of Machiavellian policy are those who attempt to paralyse democratic energies during periods of revolutionary charge”

[1]. The hazards of this principle constitute a threat to the moral underpinning of political life in general, and particularly in Nigeria.

It has had an impact on Nigeria and her leaders, as well as reorganised the leadership system. In his instruction to the prince, Machiavelli stated that the ruler is simply concerned in maintaining power and obtaining whatever he desires, regardless of the means employed, and thus the end justifies the means.

1.3 Statement Of The Problem

Man is a political, social, and religious being by nature. These three qualities of man play a critical role in shaping man into what he should be. These qualities are complementary in the sense that none of them trumps the other in man’s diverse undertakings.

Religion protects human behaviour and so fosters morality. This morality is manifested in the form of virtues. Virtue directs our behaviours, including our social and political lives. Many political theorists and philosophers have been concerned with moral issues.

Some consider morality to be a must for survival. In his definition of morality, Ekwutosi Cosmas asserts that it is “the rightness and wrongness of human action”.

[2]. The issue of morality is central to Machiavelli’s political thought. Politics and morality have long been linked by philosophers since antiquity. They found politics in moral principles. Machiavelli’s case was one of stark contrast. “He writes to remove morality if they want to be successful politicians or rulers,” says Joseph Omoregbe.

There is no room or regard for morals. Machiavelli warned his readers from the start that “simple efforts to master and apply the tenets of traditional rules will not produce an effective ruler.” Politics must follow its own set of rules”

[3].A look at the perspectives of other philosophers will reveal the importance they place on morality in political life. Human activities, according to Socrates, are related with morality. Thus, he believes, “knowing the good is doing the good.”

[4]”Knowledge is a virtue.” He associated knowledge with virtue and believed that knowing a virtue is the same as having it. According to Plato’s moral philosophy, “virtue means knowledge, true knowledge of the true consequences of all acts”

[5]. Plato, like Socrates, believes that the purpose of human life is happiness and that the only way to it is through a virtuous life.

Furthermore, Aristotle’s moral theory is based on his idea that people, like everything else in nature, have a particular ‘end’ to achieve.

He begins his Nicomachean Ethics with the statement, “Every art, every inquiry, and similarly every action and pursuit is thought to aim at some good.”

If this is the case, the challenge for ethics is, “What is the good that human behaviour seeks

[6] Happiness is the end goal that is pursued for its own sake. According to St. Augustine, once morality is removed from government, it ceases to exist.

Any government requires justice. As a result, he claims, “There is no city without concord; but there is no concord without justice.”

As a result, fairness is the first condition for the city’s existence.”

[7]. The fundamental issue with Machiavellian principles is their rejection of morality. Justice, peace, and fairness had no place. The popular dictum of Machiavelli, “the end justifies the means,” is an attack on ethical values.

Where will morality be if we take pride in the outcome that we get through fair and filthy means? If we accept this, what basis do we have to condemn some immoral acts committed by people?

What can we say about leaders and politicians who rise to positions of power in dubious means while enhancing their countries’ living standards?

There have been many who have pursued this road, such as Ghana’s Jerry Rawlings, who assassinated previous leaders in order to restore normalcy to Ghana’s political arena.

What about Nigeria, which is currently in a dreadful state? It appears that the common man has few or no ethically acceptable ways of survival.

Methodology (1.4)

My research method will be very critical and explanatory, with the goal of analysing Machiavelli’s principles and the principle of democracy. I will contrast Machiavellian ideals with Nigerian democratic practise.

My research on democracy in Nigeria will be limited to the three republics that have existed. A rudimentary examination of democracy and the elements that impede its viability in Nigeria will also be undertaken.

1.5 Review of Literature

A review of the theories of some other political thinkers will be conducted here. We will investigate all time periods.

Plato’s conception of the state is an idealist theory from the ancient times. The polis[8], the state, should, in his opinion, reflect the ideally ordered polity that exists in the intellect or in the universe of ideas.

A just state is the ideal state. The state arises as a result of the individual’s inability to meet his or her own requirements. The state is formed in order to meet these needs.

“The state is the highest form of association, most sovereign, embracing all others, and thus aims at the most sovereign of all good,” according to Aristotle. It is political ‘he koinonia politike’ – life’s communion in the form of state”

[9]. The state is the culmination of all human associations and activities that cater to all of man’s necessities. As a result, states exist by nature because man, as a political animal, can best ensure his good of life and meet his requirements through collaboration with other men in the state.

Because justice is the arrangement of the political relationship, the virtue of justice is a feature of a state. Distributive justice fosters political obligation and citizen-state harmony. As a result, it “involves treating equals equally”.

[10]. In addressing the components of the state, Aristotle justifies slavery. Aristocracy is his ideal form of government. “The state belongs to the people,” according to Cicero, “a people being an association of a good number of persons based on justice and partnership to secure the common good”

[11]. He believes that the natural law of reason is the foundation for all other laws, and that its source is Divine Wisdom and Reason, which governs the entire cosmos. All other regulations derive their power and inspiration from God’s authority over all things. He regards justice as essential to maintaining state order.

Many political philosophers developed theories about what defines a state and how it should be handled during the mediaeval period. In his theology of the two cities, Augustine pits the ‘city of God’–the heavenly kingdom–against the earthly kingdom,

which the Roman Empire represents. In his opinion, “the ‘city of God’ is the true society, a universal commonwealth ordained by God at the creation of man”.

[12]. It transcends all races, classes, and other types of barriers. The highest good can only be realised if the state is just.

According to Thomas Aquinas, civic society exists by nature. It stems from man’s nature as a social animal. His legal treatise could be used to analyse his theory. In his theory, justice is very vital. It implies “rendering to each one his right.

[13]” to him. There are two types of justice: special justice and general justice. Thomas More supported communism and believed in Plato’s concept of the philosopher monarch. The best and ideal state should “aim at the happiness or pleasure of the entire people and not only that of a few privileged citizens”.

[14]. He was opposed to the usage of the death penalty. Religion is crucial in the state, and individuals who are not religious should not be granted positions of authority.

As he puts it, “those who denied God’s existence and providence, the immortality of the soul, and future sanctions would be denied the right to hold public office and accounted as less than men.”

[15]. He linked morality with politics.

Jean Bodin, another theory, believes that “the state is a secondary or derived society, in the sense that it is a lawful government of several households and of their common possessions with sovereign power; but it is a different kind of society”.

[16]. The family is the natural social unit from which the state emerges. Political order must be maintained since it is man’s most basic need. The absolute sovereign holds the supreme power of the state. He has no right to ignore divine authority or natural law.

As a result, “the sovereign is unrestrained by law, and he cannot limit his sovereignty by law as long as he remains sovereign, because law is the sovereign’s creation”

[17]. The sovereign is the ultimate maker of the law and has complete influence over legislation.

Machiavelli flourished during the Renaissance period. With his books, the Prince and the Discourses, he established himself as the first political theorist to propose the state as a separate political organisation to be described.

“Machiavelli deviates from mediaeval teachings on the end of man by contending that the end of man is solely earthly and not heavenly”[18] in his political theory.There is no heavenly law for him.

Modern period theorists also made significant contributions to the advancement of politics. According to Thomas Hobbes, man originated in “a state of natural warfare-a state of homo homini lupus, a condition in which man is a wolf to man”

[19]. There is no morality, no law, no good or evil in nature. People then form bonds or contracts in order to establish peace and overcome the condition of survival of the fittest. The social contract, also known as the commonwealth, is the state in which the people give up their right to self-government in order to build a “unity.”

[20]. The same is true of John Locke. The state of nature is one of complete freedom and equality. Men make social contracts in order to form a political society in order to escape the disadvantages that characterise nature’s state.

Private property is acquired here by labour. As a result, “he hath mixed his labour with (nature), and joined to it something that is his own.”

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UTILITARIANISM IN JOHN STUART MILL (A CRITICAL APPRAISAL)

INTRODUCTION

In the history of philosophy, it has been held that the ultimate objective of man is happiness, and that the only way to accomplish such a goal is to live a moral or virtuous life. Living a virtuous life entails demonstrating and practising morally correct behaviour.

As a result, man employs laws whose goal is to increase the whole happiness of the community as it legislates and protects the people.

The mere fact that certain activities and measures cause misery and pain does not imply that they are evil or bad. There are some behaviours that are not enjoyable but are ethically acceptable and right. Furthermore, there are some activities that are joyful but bad and sinful.

Furthermore, because of its simplicity and affirmation of the common notion that pleasure and happiness are what everyone craves, utilitarianism has captivated the imaginations of (generations) of men more than any other manner or system of thinking.

Thus, the pursuit of pleasure becomes the driving force behind all of man’s acts.

Nonetheless, the focus of this paper is on a specific ethical theory and its solution to the core question of ethics: what is the yardstick for measuring an individual’s moral activity; what is the moral standard of morality?

Until now, John Stuart Mill’s moral philosophy has been attempted or advocated as a guide to individual acts. His doctrine had an impact on men’s thinking and imagination since it reinforced what most of them already thought to be a general proposition.

J.S. Mill agreed with his father and Bentham in their opposition to William Paley’s theological utilitarianism, ethical intuitionism, moral sense theory of ethics, and so on.

As previously said, each ethical theory has its own perspective on what makes an individual’s actions right or wrong, good or terrible. There is no universal agreement on the content or standard norms of morality.

Mill, on the other hand, forbade any reference to purported rational intuition. Instead of respectful devotion to formal standards of conduct, he emphasised the effects of behaviour as the criterion for what is good.

He believed that utilitarianism provides these reasons by determining which laws, under certain conditions, contribute to happiness or pleasure and which lead to sadness and pain.

Thus, the extent to which a rule of conduct is conducive to happiness becomes the test of right and wrong activities, while pleasure and suffering become the test of right and wrong actions. As a moral theory, utilitarianism asserts and suggests that the morality of an act is primarily determined by its utility as a way of achieving man’s happiness.

As a result, an act is good if it aids in the attainment of pleasure and the alleviation of pain. John Stuart Mill seeks to demonstrate that the highest happiness is the sole and final goal of man’s actions.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

As people tend to reject the collective activities required in a society, there have been numerous conflicts, disagreements, and unbearable attitudes in matters of morality.

Indeed, since the beginning of philosophy, the subject of the “Summum Bonum” or “the yardstick for measuring the morality of human actions” has been seen as the central issue in speculative thought. As a result, numerous sects and schools engaged in ferocious conflict against one another.

The utilitarian principle is regarded as the fundamental standard of morality and the most dependable yardstick for distinguishing between good and bad activities.

The utility of an action as a way of achieving happiness or pleasure and alleviating pain determines its goodness (right) or badness (wrong).

Nonetheless, utilitarianism has been unable to address certain moral dilemmas such as rights and justice. Certain behaviours are morally justified in utilitarianism, but they violate people’s rights and deprive them of justice.

This suggests that utilitarianism just considers how much utility is produced and ignores how that utility is obtained or dispersed among members of a society. Furthermore, determining the ethical validity of any decision becomes challenging.

As a result, utilitarianism appears to neglect certain crucial aspects of ethics because it embraces the notion that the proper behaviours in each scenario will create the greatest benefit(s). As a result, the end justifies the means, but this principle is unacceptably flawed.

THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Life in a society necessitates concerted activity. Simply said, everyone should have the same mindset in moral situations. We cannot survive, at least humanely, unless we have some sort of guidance to our lives.

There should be a justification for human activities to be carried out in light of their end(s), thus- Utilitarianism is a moral theory.

It is vital to highlight that the subject of ethics is human behaviour as it relates to moral rightness or wrongness. As a result, J.S Mill’s theory of Utilitarianism acts as a social device for controlling, identifying, influencing, shaping, and redirecting other people’s attitudes.

The objective of this principle (utilitarianism) should therefore be highlighted unequivocally as enabling human beings to live a good and moral existence.

We will therefore critically evaluate utilitarianism’s theory and proposition in order to assist individuals in approaching moral challenges with an open mind and therefore constructing a better society.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study focuses on the utilitarian principle as articulated by John Stuart Mill. Other perspectives and points of view that evaluate utilitarianism, on the other hand, are encouraged.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This research work employs an explanatory technique. It also used analytical and evaluative forms to illustrate John Stuart Mill’s concept for evaluating and justifying individual behaviours as good or bad, right or wrong.

DIVISION OF WORK

The basic introduction is followed by four chapters in this research effort. The general introduction provides a quick explanation of J.S Mill’s utility thesis and influence, as well as methodological considerations for the full study work.

The first chapter focuses on the concept, meaning, and forms of utilitarianism, while the second part examines some related utilitarianism literature from the history of philosophy.

The third chapter focuses on J.S Mill’s style of utilitarianism as well as the theory’s susceptibility. The final chapter is devoted to critical analysis and conclusion. It delves deeper into the ramifications of Mill’s utilitarian theory and the absolute happiness -God.

CHAPITRE ONE

NATURE OF UTILITARIANISM

1.1 PRELIMINARY REMARK

The definitions of ‘good’ in light of ethical theories posed perplexing problems about the orders, demands, objectives, and imperatives that comprise the principle of utility. Some of the definitions include:

The mandates of God, the dictates of reason, the accomplishment of human nature’s objectives, the duty to obey the categorical imperative, and so on.

As a result, John Locke believes that what is likely to cause us pleasure is good, while what is likely to cause us misery is evil. In contrast, David Hume defines pleasure as sympathy. As a result, sympathy is the joy we feel when we think about the pleasure of others.

Jeremy Bentham, on the other hand, claimed that man is by nature a pleasure-seeking and pain-avoidant animal. These two conceptions (pleasure and pain), he claims, govern all we do, say, and think.

Utilitarianism is a moral philosophy that claims that man’s highest good consists in the optimal realisation of the pleasures to which he is capable. It considers pleasures and happiness to be the ultimate goal of man. As a result, utility denotes happiness and pleasure, the determinant of morality.

As a result, the utilitarian principle approves or disapproves of any action that appears to have the potential to increase or decrease happiness. It therefore declares an activity to be good when the sum of pleasure exceeds the sum of pain.

1.2 WHAT EXACTLY IS UTILITARIANISM?

We cannot adequately comprehend utilitarianism unless we understand the values of the ideas of happiness and pleasure. Every writer who had maintained the theory of utility,

from Epicurus to Bentham, meant by it not something to be distinguished from pleasure, but pleasure itself along with exemption from pain; for utilitarian principle considers effects like pleasure, happiness, good, evil, and pain as they relate to human actions and behaviour.

It should be highlighted right away that those who advocate for utility as a litmus test for good and evil did not use the term in the narrow and just colloquial sense in which utility is opposed to pleasure.

Utility is synonymous with happiness and pleasure. Furthermore, the world and new generations have constructed and acquired their single understanding of the meaning of utilitarianism from the term’s warped use and definition.

Utilitarianism is most commonly defined as the belief that “the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by the goodness or badness of its consequences.”

It can be presented as a normative ethics system (a recommendation for how we should think about conduct) or as a descriptive ethics system (an investigation of how we do think about conduct).

According to The Concise Routledge Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, utilitarianism is a philosophy of rightness in which welfare is the only good thing. Morality and utility are interchangeable for a utilitarian.

As such, utilitarianism can be characterised as an ethical theory that maintains that the morality of an act is primarily determined by its utility as a way of achieving man’s enjoyment, which is usually considered temporary.

Utilitarianism is an ethical theory founded on the utility principle, sometimes known as the concept of the greatest benefit or happiness.

As a result, utility is seen as the true norm of morality and the most reliable measurement for separating good from bad activities, and hence as the yardstick by which good actions are distinguished from bad actions.

It follows that behaviours that cause or tend to produce pleasure are good, whereas actions that produce or tend to produce pain are bad.

Utilitarianism emphasised dominance over frivolity and momentary pleasure. If there is one pleasure (activity) to which practically all who have experienced both give a clear preference, regardless of any moral responsibility, it is regarded as the more desirable pleasure. John Stuart Mill defined utilitarianism in his work Utilitarianism:

The religion that embraces the greatest happiness principle as the foundation of morals maintains that activities are right in proportion to how they tend to promote happiness, and wrong in proportion to how they tend to generate the opposite of happiness.

Happiness is defined as pleasure and the lack of suffering, whereas sadness is defined as pain and the absence of pleasure.

The Greatest Happiness concept explains man’s ultimate purpose as an existence free of pain and as abundant in happiness as possible in both quality and quantity. In relation to and for the benefit of all nice things.

Furthermore, the life theory on which this moral theory is based holds that pleasure and freedom from pain are the only things desirable as ends and that all desirable things are desirable either for the pleasure inherent in themselves or as means to promote pleasure and prevent pain.

The happiness (pleasure) with which utilitarianism is concerned is not the happiness (pleasure) with which egoism is concerned. Mill emphasised this point, stating that the happiness that serves as the Utilitarian standard for what is proper in behaviour is not the agent’s.

As between an individual’s own happiness and the happiness of others, utilitarianism compels him to be scrupulously impartial as a disinterested and kind spectator. As a result, he maintained:

For that standard is not the agent’s greatest happiness, but the greatest amount of happiness overall; and, while it is debatable whether a noble character is always happier for its nobleness, there is no doubt that it makes other people happier and that the world as a whole benefits greatly from it.

As a result, people must always behave with the intention of furthering the broad interests of society. It is worth noting here that utilitarian morality corresponded with Jesus of Nazareth’s golden rule, to do as you would like to be done by others and to love (your neighbour) as you love yourself. This invariably reads the entire spirit of utilitarian ethics.

As a means of getting the closest to its objectives, utility requires that laws and social systems place the happiness or interest of each individual in line with the interest of the entire.

This may be accomplished by using education as a vehicle to instill in the minds of all individuals an unbreakable link between individual happiness and the good of society; therefore the altruistic nature of utilitarianism.

Nonetheless, there is no ethical norm that determines if an action is good or bad, right or wrong, because such a judgement is made by a nice, amiable, brave, and generous man or not. Furthermore, proper behaviour does not always imply virtuous character.

Being a good doctor, for example, is not the same as being a decent person. A good doctor does not have to be a decent person. As a result, there is a distinction between professional perfection and the activities of the same individual as a person.

In the long term, however, excellent actions are the best proof of a good character. Utilitarianism could thus only be realised through the widespread cultivation of character nobleness.

1.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF UTILITARIANISM

In this section, we will look at five different types of utilitarianism. However, each type of utilitarianism is related to another in such a way that knowing and knowledge of one serves as a foundation for understanding and knowledge of the other. They are as follows:

i. Action Utilitarianism

ii. Rule Utilitarianism.

iii. Individual Utilitarianism

iv. Social Utilitarianism

V. Egoistic Altruism

1.3.1 ACT UTILITARIANISM

Act utilitarianism is a significant kind of utilitarianism that maintains that the rightness or wrongness of an action should be determined only on the basis of the action’s consequence(s). That is, the “after-effect” or result of an action defines the morality of the action in question.

As a result, activities that provide positive effects for the greatest number of people are deemed good, whereas actions that produce evil results, such as suffering and sadness, are considered terrible and wrong.

Furthermore, act-utilitarianism asserts that an action is right if it maximises utility for the greatest number of people; the morality of an action is determined by the consequences of the activity, according to this concept.

Act-utilitarianism is concerned with or focused on a specific individual’s activity in order to appeal to the individual. As a result, the outcome of an individual’s conduct becomes the moral standard.

As a result, if an action has the same effect on a lot of people, the action is morally good based on the total amount of pain or pleasure avoided.

This concept means that act-utilitarianism disregards the character of an action. Instead, it is based on the impact of such action on the individual: to determine whether an action is right or bad, the outcome or consequences of the activity are important.

It follows that as long as an activity produces the best potential consequences for the greatest number of people, it should be performed and carried out as a morally decent act. To put it another way, the aim justifies the means.

1.3.2 RULE-UTILITARIANISM

This is a prominent type of utilitarianism. In response to these critics, utilitarians provide rule-utilitarianism as an essential and intellectual alternative version of utilitarianism. The fundamental technique of rule-utilitarian analysis is to confine utilitarian analysis to the evaluation of moral rules.

This indicates that the ostensible determinant of a proper (moral) conduct is the question of whether the activity is required by the correct moral principles that everyone should follow.

As a result, if an action creates pleasure when used as a general guideline of conduct, it is considered ethically good, and vice versa.

According to rule-utilitarian, when determining if a particular action is ethical, one should never examine whether that action will yield the maximum amount of utility. Instead, one should consider if the activity is required by the moral principles that everyone should obey.

The fundamental inquiry in this dimension should be what the useful outcome of a moral norm would be if everyone adopted and followed it. Or what are the proper moral guidelines?

Such issues like the ones raised above should concern us. Indeed, the correct moral standards are those that would yield the most utility if everyone followed them, hence maximising utility.

Simply put, rule-utilitarianism is concerned with rules, and the correct conduct here is that which is consistent with those rules that, if adopted by everybody, will maximise utility.

Meanwhile, the fact that a given action will maximise utility on a specific occasion does not imply that the conduct is good or ethically correct. Instead, we need discover a valid moral rule that evaluates specific behaviours in the counter-examples in reference to the selected norms.

The utility principle must underpin moral rules. By this point, only the rules that will yield the best possible result for the greatest number of people if everyone follows them when they are accepted stand out as a benchmark for distinguishing good activities from bad actions. This rule-utilitarianism theory is summarised as follows:

a. An activity is right from an ethical standpoint if and only if it maximises benefit in relation to the moral principles that are regarded correct.

b. A moral rule is correct if and only if the overall utility produced if everyone followed that rule is greater than the total utility produced if everyone followed some other rule.

Finally, rule-utilitarianism considers the question: will everyone accepting and following this rule result in useful consequences? If the response is yes, the act becomes morally good; if the answer is no, the act becomes morally bad.

1.3.3 INDIVIDUAL UTILITARIANISM

Individual utilitarianism, often known as Egoistic Hedonism, is a type of utilitarianism. The word clearly describes the concept.

This kind of utilitarianism asserts that the end that each individual should seek is his own greatest personal enjoyment.

As a result, every activity that contributes to promote and raise each man’s per se enjoyment is morally right and good, whereas activities that create the opposite of one’s personal pleasure are morally terrible and wrong.

This school of thought likewise agreed that human pleasure is man’s highest good. As a result, Jeremy Bentham believed that pleasure is the sole good that all men desire and pain is the one evil that all men attempt to avoid.

As a result, pain and pleasure regulate our actions in the following ways:

It is up to them to both point out what we should do and decide what we will do. The standard of right and wrong, on the one hand, and the chain of causes and effects, on the other, are attached to their throne.

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Introduction

The finest practices for a great Chapter 4: Data Presentation and analysis are covered in this guide. This chapter is the culmination of all of your laborious data collecting, careful analysis, and research narrative. Consider it the great reveal of your results, when you can impart the knowledge you’ve learned from your research. The general structure of the chapter four is;

• Introduction (which contains the Overview of the Research Design and introduces the chapter)
• Data Analysis and Presentation
• Discussion of Findings
• Conclusion and Transition to Chapter 5

Don’t worry, this guide will help you through the process of presenting your data such that it is understandable, captivating, and apparent even to someone who hasn’t read the earlier parts of your work.

Assume we are talking about the best approach to present your results while seated across from one another. The organisation of this chapter as well as the details of data presentation—tables, figures, and narrative descriptions—will all be covered. When this guide ends, you’ll know how to write a Chapter 4 that not only stands alone but also emphasises the importance of your study.

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Transition from Chapter 3

Getting from Chapter 3 (Methodology) to your data presentation should go effortlessly. For your readers, this establishes the scene and offers continuity. Reminding your readers of how you gathered and analysed your data, begin with a quick summary of the study design. Though brief, this summary should be thorough enough to jog readers’ memories.

For example:

‘We described the quantitative techniques used to gather data from a sample of 200 participants in Chapter 3. Using these statistical tools, the data were examined to find connections and patterns pertinent to our study topics. We provide the conclusions of this analysis in this chapter.”

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Brief Overview of the Research Project

Next, provide a synopsis of your study endeavour. This has to contain a synopsis of the goal of the study along with a restatement of your research questions or hypotheses. Because it makes sure your readers are aware of the background of the data being provided and links your results with the study goals, this part is essential.

For instance:

“This research sought to find out how college students’ use of social media affected their academic performance. How does college students’ academic performance relate to their use of social media was the main study topic. ‘What kinds of social media do students use most often?’ was one of the secondary questions. and ‘Is the amount of time kids spend on social media related to their GPA?’”

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Organization of the Chapter four

Clearly describe the chapter’s organisation. This facilitates simple navigation of the material by your viewers. Summarise the primary parts, such:

• Introduction (which contains the Overview of the Research Design and introduces the chapter)
• Data Analysis and Presentation
• Discussion of Findings
• Conclusion and Transition to Chapter 5

Offering a road map guarantees that your readers can follow along without becoming lost.

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Data Analysis and Presentation

This becomes the main idea of Chapter 4. You will logically and orderly display your results here. The secret is to make sure the facts speaks for itself while still being succinct and precise. Your presentation will vary somewhat depending on whether your study is qualitative or quantitative.

Quantitative Research

An explanation of the sample should open your data presentation in quantitative research. Add specifics such the sample size, the demographics, and other pertinent features. This gives the information that follows perspective.

Sample Description:

“200 college students made up our sample, which was divided 60% female and 40% male. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 25; the average age was 21.”

Deliver the descriptive statistics next. This comprises the means, standard deviations, frequencies, and percentages. To help readers understand the important ideas, summarise this material using tables and figures.

Descriptive Statistics Example:

Take up each hypothesis or research question one at a time after the descriptive statistics. Explain the procedure followed, provide the findings, and indicate if the null hypothesis was rejected for each hypothesis.

Hypothesis Testing Example

“To test the hypothesis that higher social media usage is associated with lower GPA, a Pearson correlation analysis was conducted,” the paper says. Assuming that more social media use is linked to a lower GPA, the findings showed a significant negative connection (r = -0.45, p < 0.01).

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Qualitative Research

Presenting themes and patterns that sprang from your data is the main goal of qualitative research. Initially, provide a quick overview of the data collecting procedure and the analytical techniques.

Data Collection and Analysis example:

“Twenty people participated in semi-structured interviews that yielded the data. Themes analysis was used to code the data and find recurrent themes once the interviews were transcribed.”

Narrate the results, emphasising important themes and bolstering them with participant quotations. Subheadings help to arrange the topics and improve readability of the section.

Themes and Patterns Examples:

Theme 1: Impact of Social Media on Study Habits

“Participants noted that, social media prevented them from concentrating on their schoolwork. ‘I find myself going around Instagram when I should be preparing for exams’, one participant said. Many others agreed, suggesting that social media may be a major distraction.”

Theme 2: Positive Uses of social media

“Some participants brought out the advantages of social media in spite of the distractions. ‘Social media helps me stay connected with classmates and access study resources,’ one student said. This implies that academic help may likewise benefit much from social media.”

Theme 3: Social Media as a Stress Reliever

“Many interviewees said they used social media to unwind and escape the pressures of schoolwork. ‘I spend a few minutes on YouTube watching hilarious videos when I feel overburdened with my homework,’ one student said. That restores me. This emphasises how social media may both support and impede academic output.”

Theme 4: The Influence of Social Media on Peer Relationships

“A number of kids spoke about how social media affects their friendships with classmates. ‘Social media helps me remain in contact with peers, particularly for group assignments,’ said one. ‘I feel left out sometimes when I see my pals hanging around without me,’ said another participant. This paradox highlights the nuanced function of social media in student social relations.”

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Discussion of Findings

Discussion of your results is crucial after data presentation. The findings should be interpreted in this part and related to the body of current literature and your research questions. Talk about and weigh any surprising results.

Interpretation and Implications:

“Higher social media use can have a detrimental effect on academic performance, as the negative correlation between social media use and GPA suggests. According to earlier study by Smith et al. (2019), who also discovered a comparable correlation, this result is consistent. Still, the encouraging comments on utilising social media for academic help emphasises how social media can serve as a resource as well as a distraction.”

“Qualitative data highlighted even more the complex experiences of the pupils. Social networking is a stress relief and a way to keep up peer connections, even if it can also be a distraction. These results indicate that the effect of social media on academic achievement is not clear-cut and varies according to personal use habits and goals.”

Think back on your study’s shortcomings and recommend new directions for investigation. This demonstrates your critical interaction with your data and thought through the wider consequences of your work.

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Limitations

“The use of self-reported data in this research has several drawbacks, like social desirability bias. Further limiting the generalizability of the results may be the very small sample size for the qualitative interviews.”

Future Research (optional):

“Future studies may look at how certain social media platforms affect academic achievement and how these impacts vary over time. Examining methods for juggling social media usage with school obligations might potentially provide insightful information.”

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Conclusion and Transition to Chapter 5

A synopsis of your results should close Chapter 4 and lead into Chapter 5, where you will go over the main conclusions of your research and provide suggestions.

Conclusion:

“In conclusion, our research revealed that there are both good and negative effects of social media use on academic achievement. The results emphasise the importance of students using social media in moderation. We will go into the wider ramifications of these results and provide suggestions for teachers and students in Chapter 5.”

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Tips for Effective Data Presentation

These more pointers will help you make sure your Chapter 4 is interesting and successful:

1. 1Use Visual Aids: Charts, graphs, and tables may help you visualise your results and simplify difficult information. Be sure the content references and labels them appropriately.
2. Be succinct and clear; stay away from jargon and too technical vocabulary. Seek for simplicity and clarity to ensure that a wide range of people can grasp your results.
3. Consider your data presentation to be a story. As you lead your readers through the material, emphasise important details and make links between disparate bits of information.
4. Be Honest: Include all pertinent results, including those that contradict your theories. Research needs transparency.
5. Draw in the Reader: Write in a conversational, interesting style. Imagine sharing your results with an interested but non-expert friend or coworker.

Chapter 4 may be made interesting and understandable as well as instructive by adhering to these recommendations. Recall that the objective of data presentation is to produce an impression on your readers that lasts a lifetime and emphasises the importance of your study.

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THE EXISTENCE OF GOD AND THE PROBLEM OF EVIL A PHILOSOPHICAL EVALUATION

CHAPITRE ONE

1.1 PHILOSOPHY AND ITS QUEST FOR KNOWLEDGE

Philosophy arose from man’s thirst for knowledge. It is a reasoned pursuit of fundamental truths, a quest for comprehension, and a study of ethical values. Philosophy tries to set evidentiary standards, give logical conflict resolution strategies, and develop tools for evaluating ideas and arguments.

It enables one to experience the world through the eyes of other inch vandals (Plato, Aristotle, Thales, Anaximander, Socrates, and so on) and various groups and cultures.

It improves our ability to perceive the relationships between diverse subjects of study, and it broadens one’s understanding of the meaning and variety of human experience.

Philosophy is the only discipline that investigates questions in all aspects of human life, and its techniques can be applied to problems in every field of study or endeavour.

Religion, psychology, sociology, law, machine learning, education, and other fields of study place a high value on philosophy.

Philosophy is the mother of all subjects and is unlike any other field. It has no commonly accepted definition; it is distinct in its methodology, nature, and application.

However, while understanding man’s existence is not as difficult as understanding God’s, it is one of the world’s greatest miracles.

This factual injunction is backed by one of completion’s statements that there are numerous wonders in the earth and that man is the greatest of all miracles

1. The search for the true nature of man has resulted in a great deal of philosophical debate, opposing viewpoints, and hypotheses.

1.2 CONCEPTIONS OF GOD

Xenophanes was a Greek pre-Socratic philosopher who awoke metaphysicians and theologians from their dogmatic slumber by criticising God’s anthropomorphism; ever since, there has been an endeavour to grasp God’s character.

Various religious philosophers have claimed that God is apart from finite beings, and that he must be regarded as a mystery beyond human comprehension, the philosopher to the God of thinking.

God is largely conceived of in terms of transcendence, personality, and the Hebrew Scriptures, in which God is presented as the creator.

God created the Heavens and the Earth in the beginning1. This God has an anthropomorphic personality. He possesses finite intelligence and epistemic unit, as evidenced by his sadness at the creation of man.

This God is tribalistic, as seen by his unwavering support for the Jewish race over all others. Malinky’s point of view. He writes, ”

The Hebrew concept of God is, to put it bluntly, authromorphic. He made both promises and threats. He had the ability to be angry, and his attributes included righteousness, justice, mercy, truth, and faithfulness.

He attaches himself to his people by covenant and therefore limits himself3

It is sufficient to remark that the concept of God in the New and Old Testaments differs. They are not identical. The God of the New Testament, sometimes known as the Christian God, is a universal and all-loving God who is fundamentally omniscient.

As much as this concept is open to interpretation, this God is portrayed as a triad consisting of God the Son, God the Father, and God the Holy Spirit.

Christians preach that God is almighty and has sovereignty over all that is in heaven and earth, that God is righteous in judgement over good and evil beyond time, space, and change, and that “God is love”

4. He is the personification of love. The creation of the world from nothing, as well as the formation of the human race, were manifestations of that love, as was the coming of Christ

5. This God is a God of miracles. He is either imperceptible or incorporeal.

In Islam, God is viewed as one, prefect, uncreated, eternal, omnipotent, and creator of the most gracious, merciful, the only owner, and the only ruling judge of the day of recompense

6. In monotheistic religions, the charge has frequently been made that the Christian concept of trinity, in particular, is at odds with the oneness of God. God is viewed as the cause and creator of everything, and he knows and foresees everything. He is a manifestation of justice. According to Gerald Hawting, “this God is one, there is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of God”.

7. The concept of God differs in African traditional religion, particularly in the Yoruba socio-cultural Millie. God (olodumare) is more Old Testament-like. Yahweh’s demand for honesty and uprightness. God is the creator; He is the source of both good and evil. He is the most powerful of all beings.

His methods are incomprehensible. According to J.S MBITI, the Yoruba regard God as the ultimate judgement. J.A.I BEWAJI states about Olodumare, ”

8. There is no doubt that God is the most powerful creature and that he possesses every supernatural characteristic imaginable, but the Yoruba do not believe that such a deity cannot do or cause evil. The ability to use all things is one of the supreme being’s attributes.

In a similar spirit, E.B Idowu asserts:

He is the most powerful being, the creator, the wise and impartial judge who wields absolute power over the universe.

J.A.I. Bewaji also believes the following:

The origins of evil are God-created, and they aid in the maintenance of high moral standards. The Christian God is ever forgiving, slow to anger yet quick to forgive.

In fact, he desires that sinners repent and be rescued rather than their death. Whereas the Yoruba Olodumare is a morally upright God who administers justice here on earth rather than in the afterlife, where we cannot be certain that anybody will witness and learn from it10.

God, according to Nicholas and Cusha, is a mix of good and evil. Whitehead and other process theologians saw and the world as sharing the same process and being dependent on each other for growth and development. God is also thought to be dipolar,

with one element of his essence that is dependent on his world and another that is entirely absorbed in the world process and suffers as a result of it. As hinted, he explains the exercise of evil and suffering by providing to every level of creation the freedom to respond or fail to respond to God’s persuasive command.

The process philosophy idea of God addresses two fundamental issues confronting Christian philosophers. These issues include how an immaterial person or spiritual being can be the source of matter. To this end, philosophy explains the process by attempting to eliminate the dichotomy between God and matter, which is an essential aspect of the divine being.

The second problem that the concept of God solved through the process of philosophy is the problem of evil. According to this school of thought, God simply means that he is not the author of evil.

God, according to Sigmund Freud, is a creation of delusion. God is an illusory construct designed to fill the 100pholes of security left by maturity above parental care. These numerous interpretations of God demonstrate that God is open to interpretation.

1.3 ARGUEMENTS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF GOD.

Immanuel Cant claimed that the existence of God cannot be demonstrated, but it also cannot be denied. Kant viewed God to be an objective topic, one that is unquestionably a subject of interpretation.

He claims that the concept of God underpins moral ideas, therefore we can make the practical assumption that God exists to ensure the link between virtue and happiness.

Frederick Nietzsche dismissed believing in God as weak and untrustworthy. Philosophers such as Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud attempted to understand the personal motivations and origins of beliefs, pointing out that this is insufficient to prove the existence of God.

We have various arguments for the existence of God advanced by various philosophers from Aristotle to Spinoza, and from one philosophical age to the next.

We also have a theistic view of God. Theists believe that God’s knowledge, or omniscience, is limitless. He is regarded as almighty and omnipresent. God is likewise considered sexless, but he is generally addressed with the masculine pronoun.

Augustine, Duns Scotus, and St. Thomas Aquinas all sought more specific and substantial evidences for God’s existence. According to Plato, God is transcendence; that is, the highest and most perfect being, and on who uses everlasting forms or archetypes to make an endless and uncreated universe.

From the beginnings of philosophy to the present day, philosophers have attempted to provide reasonable arguments for God’s existence in a variety of methods.

They attempted to describe the nature of God in the grand scheme of things. The following argument for God’s existence will be discussed.

1. Cosmological Case

2. Design’s Argument

3. The Ontological Case

1.Cosmological Argument: Typically linked with Thomas Aquinas, this argument contends that the objects we perceive around us today are the result of a chain of preceding causes. As a result, there must be some initial reason that was not caused by anything else.

And that initial uncaused cause was caused by God. It is also known as the causal argument or the initial causes. In its most basic form, the argument goes as follows:

The universe exists because something other than Itself causes everything to exist. So the universe is caused by something other than itself, and whatever originated the universe is larger than the universe11.

There is also the experiential argument, in which people broaden their personal religious experiences of God to argue in support of his existence. Finally, there is the argument by reason and moral MgvffiaerA.

2.Design Argument: According to this argument, animals, plants, and planets show evident indicators of being designed for certain purposes, implying that there must have been a creator.

The designer’s argument is often known as the theological argument for God’s existence. Proponents argue that the design or order found in the universe proves the existence of an intelligent designer, sometimes referred to as God.

Here, William Parley contrasted the complexity of living beings with the lesser complexity of a timepiece, which we know was constructed by an intelligent being.

A watch would be meaningless without a watchmaker. Parley contended that living things could not exist in the absence of an intelligent designer.

Because watches are intelligent design goods, and living organisms, like watches, have sophisticated me chansons that have a function, living things are most likely intelligent design products as well.12

3.Ontological Argument: An ontological argument is one that points to the existence of God through the type of being. God exists because he is a perfect being, that he is all knowing, all powerful, and all good.

According to this argument, everyone but the fool thinks in their hearts that there is a being superior and perfect, which is God. As a result, the fact that man can conceive of a being greater than himself indicates that God exists in actuality.

And, without a doubt, that man, of whose nothing better can be envisaged, cannot exist solely in the understanding. For example, if it exists just in the mind, it can be imagined to exist in reality, which is greater.13

This thesis was advocated by St. Anselm, who claims that for something to be conceived in our understanding confirms its presence in reality.

1.4 ARGUMENTS AGAINST THE EXISTENCE  OF GOD.

Various philosophers have objected to various arguments for God’s existence at some point. These arguments are presented in the form of a counter-argument to the numerous reasons in favour of God’s existence.

Atheists are philosophers or schools of thought who argued against the existence of God. We will explain this in terms of the world’s sorrows and evil.

1.PAIN: According to Friedrich Nietzsche, “God is dead.” Nietzsche’s claim that God once existed and is now dead is incorrect. He made this statement to make it plain or to imprint on the minds of religions that the presence of pain, natural disasters, disharmony, and chaos in the universe proves that there is nothing as God’s existence. According to Nietzsche:

All people with an ounce of intelligence would recognise that the universe has no intelligent plan or rational Order unit: they would now understand why things happen one way and not another, and that the harmony and order we imagine exists in the universe is merely pasted by the human mind.14

The argument contends that because God allows pain, disease, and natural disasters to occur, he cannot be all-powerful, loving, and good in the human sense. Religions people, according to Nietzsche, are pitiful, dominated by the view instilled by religion, science, and philosophy, a vision that makes them impotent losers.

They see the world as a place regulated by national law, and they adhere to a slave mentality or morality that celebrates the man who serves his followers with meekness and self-sacrifice.

He postulated a morality based on the creation of a tough type of human being. Such a being will accept existence in all of its forms, including pain, and will thereby make living an art form.

According to Blaise Pascal, the universe’s discord and misery are strong indicators of the absence of a divine being:

I would remain calm in my faith. But, knowing that there is too much to deny and too little to be certain of, I am pitied: thus, J have wished a Hundred times that if God preserves Nature, he should testify to him unequivocally.15

All of the arguments from injustices assert that God is partial in the distribution of destiny, if he ever was. The argument from multiplicity asserts that based on the contradicting testimonies of numerous religions regarding God, only one or even none can be correct about God.

Religion, according to Sigmund Freud, is an exercise in mass decision-making that primarily helps to keep people in a state of psychic infantilism. Because of life’s difficulties and difficulties. Man conjured up the image of an elevated parent, who, like our own father, tells us that all will be well soon.

The reality is that if he is as powerful as he claims, problems should have been solved by now. Freud thinks that humans would be happier if they kept a semblance of truth in their thoughts and tended to their own gardens.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The dilemma of God’s existence is as old as man, and it is a major topic that man raises in his thinking either consciously or unconsciously. Philosophers are deeply concerned about this issue.

The question of God’s existence has virtually become a part of every being, and one who holds these beliefs will be labelled an atheist, which today connotes a black sheep of the family.

Man has many characteristics with other living things, but the reality remains that man is completely unique. Man has been endowed with qualities that other beings do not have, one of which is rationality, or the ability to reason.

Unlike plants and lower animals, which respond involuntarily to external stimuli, man is capable of deciding consciously which stimuli he should respond to and which he should disregard.

People in the field of religion are so certain of their beliefs that they presume, as with other areas of knowledge such as technology, culture, and ethics, that there must be a means to prove the presence and nature of God.

Others feel that seeking intellectual reason for the existence of God is superfluous and even wicked, and that it should be accepted without any attempt to prove its existence.

Man’s rationality has automatically made him responsible for whatever action he performs after conscious evaluation of the fact that behind every action performed by man, there is a motivating principle.

1 It is equally important to know and understand the meaning and purposes of everything that exists, despite the serious mystery in which things are strictly bound up. A philosopher will never be content with anything less than a good explanation for choosing a belief or any phenomenon at all.

2 In religion, as in all other areas, philosophers seek answers that can be justified by sound arguments.

The fact that everything in nature has meaning and can be understood to constitute certain meaning towards the realisation of certain ends, and having equally grasped it to the extent that all other things as well as lower forms of life are meant and designed for human purposes and convinces, the word it becomes somewhat comprehend the meaning purpose and the end for which human existence is meant.

The existence of God cannot be proven simply by considering the term “GOD” as in the ontological argument. God’s existence cannot be shown solely by investigating what it is about nature that makes it clear that it requires God as its original cause.

Some pessimists consider human existence as a walking shadow full of fire and fury signifying nothing.

3 That is, human existence counts for nothing except emptiness and meaninglessness.

Other thinkers, such as St. Augustine, believe that everything exists to serve a purpose. According to St. Augustine, God is a God of purpose who cannot create anything without a reason. This is life’s greatest tragedy, according to him, because it is dangerous to be alive and not know why one was given life.

4 Because the deepest and ultimate craving of the human existence is the search for a sense of significance and relevance to life, fundamental questions such as “Who am I?” What am I here for, and why am I here?

And so forth has continued to perplex the minds of deep-thinking philosophers. The reality that God’s existence can only be shown by his role and purpose in nature, as evidenced in Thomas Aquinas’s argument for God’s existence.

STATEMENT OF PURPOSE

The goal of this essay is to critically evaluate the case for God’s existence in light of the dilemma of evil. We’ll also take a quick look at St. Thomas Aquinas’ case for God’s existence. To disprove the logical, empirical, sceptic, and theoretical determinism approaches to the problem of evil.

THESIS

This essay’s argument is that the facts of evil put into question God’s phenomenal characteristics of omnipotence, omniscience, and omnibenevolence. But, beyond that, our thesis asserts that everything that exists is the result of something other than itself.

Whatever generated the cosmos and everything that exists is larger than the universe and everything that exists. Because God is the only being larger than the universe, God created both the universe and God.

METHODOLOGY

Our approach will be historical, explanatory, and analytical.

SCOPE AND LIMITATION

The subject of this essay is limited to proofs of God’s existence and the presence of evil. We will critically and extensively investigate the problem of evil in its different manifestations, with special reference to Thomas Aquinas’ argument for the existence of God.

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