ABSTRACT

The title of this project is communication as a tool for enhancing organizational performance. The aim of this study was to investigate the organizational communication techniques used by the Nigerian Bottling Company and the effectiveness of such techniques. In carrying out this research, the primary and secondary data were used by the researcher.

The survey method was used also. Questionnaires and Personal Interviews were used as instruments for data collection. For the purpose of clarity and understanding of results, data was analyzed in simple tables and percentages… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

All organizations, both public and private entities rely on some form of communication to send their messages across to their target audience or inform their target audience of the mission and vision of their entity. Employee mostly hypes performance at the workplace when effective communication is at its ultimate.

For instance, when the information about an organization’s policies and procedures are at its optimum level with openness and accuracy; and also when the information provided is adequate, factual, and has good feedback (Kacmar et al., 2003; Neves & Eisenberger, 2012).

Meanwhile, only sizeable modern age organization has placed value on effective workplace way of communicating. It is assumed by some management members that, communication is the simplest task for everyone to execute but research has shown that communication thus makes and unmakes the existence of an organization. In most Organizations, managers often leave that aspect of effective communication to the human resource department as their focus only reaches for the operational activities.

In Nigeria Bottling Company (GRA) for example, the managers only concentrate on target achievement thereby forgetting that free flow of information and how well the staff understands this information dissemination boost their morale to work harder in maximizing revenue. Likewise there becomes a huge problem when managers within organizations always assume that they have had sufficient communication with their staff just by way of instructing them on their daily schedules.

According to Anchor (2009) and Eisenberger & Stinglhamber (2011), two-way communication has a positive impact on workers who perform profitably at work. They form some kind of belief pertaining to their work which intends satisfy the socio-emotional. Relating this to the study done by Eisenberger & Stinglhamber (2011) and Rhoades & Eisenberger (2002), employees are able to determine the organizations’ readiness to appreciate and reward effective and efficient performance by workers… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

Problem Statement

Employee Interaction is a principal and essential endeavor in organizations as stated by Harris & Nelson (2008). They further asserted that the sustainability of an organization is based on effective communication among employees and relationships develop based on effective communication. Working environments differs from all angles as well as their culture, economic and social development.

In this context some of these organizations’ have cumbersome reporting lines, which are difficult for the employee to abide; such as conflicting authorities, and obligations thereby making some subordinates become answerable more than a superior.  Intra- communication facilities such as intercoms and memos are mostly ignored by some organization and this deprives subordinates from knowing the vision and mission of an organization.

Considering the problems stated above, the study intends to aid organizations by expounding on the way effective communication would improve organizational performance… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

Research Objectives

The main research objective is to determine the function of successful communication on organizational performance using GRA as a case. However, the specific objectives of the study are below;

• To examine the communication systems in GRA.
• To measure the performance of employees using GRA appraisal indicators…

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LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

This chapter reviews the literature on the role of effective communication on organizational performance. It discusses issues on effective communication and organizational performance from different perspectives and with the view of giving a theoretical and empirical foundation to the study. It starts with an exposition on Organizational Communication, followed by Communication Channels, Organizational Communication and Organizational performance, Theoretical and Empirical Foundations on Organizational Communication. The chapter also includes Barriers and Breakdowns in Communication Systems.

Organizational Communication

According to Lindlof and Taylor (2011), ‘organizational communication broadly studies corporate life as constituted through discursive processes such as conflict, teamwork, and leadership’. Internal organizational communication facilitates the flow of information among members of the organization.

The effective flow of information among employees within an organization is facilitated by a vibrant internal communication system. These systems of communication could be upward, downward, vertical or horizontal which is based on the structure of command within an organization…. (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

Patterns of Communication within Organization

Formally, Organizational communication has two dimensions; vertically and horizontally. Vertical communication is a downward and upward form of direction. In other words vertical communication transmits information among different levels in the organizational structure. However, horizontal communication also transmits information among people, divisions, departments and units within the operational structure. This section presents the qualities and roles of different communication flows in an organization.

Figure 2.1: Vertical Communication Patterns

Source: Business Communication (2015)

Downward communication 

Downward communication is when messages flow from a higher-level employee to a lower-level employee within an Organization. This arises if information runs down through an Organization’s official succession of the hierarchical structure. In other words, communications start at the upper levels of the Organization and moves through to the bottom levels (Tubbs and Moss, 2008).

The purpose of downward communication is to assign tasks respectively, postulate instructions and directions. It is also aimed to inform employees of job procedures and policies, identification of problems that need attention at the various levels and deliver feedback on employees’ past performance (Robbins et al., 2010)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

Empirical Theories on Organizational Communication

In the light of this study, there have been many researchers and theorists who have dealt into it and brought about many findings, which are been used in most of the modern organizations as far as effective communication is concerned. Femi (Ph.D.) conducted a study on “Communication as a tool for enhancing Workers’ Performance in Selected Organizations. In Lagos State, Nigeria” he saw communication as an important component of the organization’s project.

This because it was assumed the global world has become widespread that, most organizations petition to meet their needs with a lesser resource moral through communication. His research tests the substantial relationship amid communication and workers’ performance in some designated organizations in Lagos State, Nigeria… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design

The research design used in this study is descriptive survey, which allows both implicit and explicit hypothesis to be tested. According to Alhassan et al, (2006), descriptive surveys are designed to portray accurately the characteristics of particular individuals, situations or groups.

It is used as a needs assessment tool to provide information on which to base sound decisions and to prepare the background for more constructive programme of educational research. It also serves as a foundation for more vigorous and precise investigation. The data gathered in a survey are usually responses to predetermined questions that are asked of respondents… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Introduction

In this chapter, the researcher discusses the results obtained from the analysis of the primary data collected. The analysis of results was conducted according to the study objectives and therefore involved four sections. The first three sections involved some quantitative statistical analysis using descriptive, correlation and regression techniques.

The fourth section, on the other hand, involved a qualitative analysis of an interview schedule conducted and the response rate. Following these sections, the results were then discussed to draw out the central themes and how they compare with previous studies.

Demographic Characteristics of Respondents 

Before the data was analyzed in accordance to the study objectives, a demographic characteristic of the data was obtained. From the results, it is realized that the majority of the respondents were males. Specifically, 75% were males while 20% were females.

Most of the respondents (47%) were also between the ages of 40 years and 55 years, 32% were between 26 years and 39 years. Quite a number (14%) were also between 18 years and 25 years… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

The study was carried out to determine the role of effective communication on organizational performance by focusing on Nigeria Bottling Company. This chapter therefore presents the major findings from the data analysis and the overall conclusions of the study after which recommendations are made.

Summary of Findings

This study determined the role of effective communication on organizational performance using GRA as a case study. Specifically, the study examined the communication systems available in GRA. It also measured the performance of employees at GRA.

In addition, it determined the relationship between effective organizational communication and organizational performance. It also identified the channels of communication considered by employees to be the most useful. Finally, barriers and breakdowns in the communication systems of…. (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

Conclusions

This study investigated the role of effective communication on organizational performance using GRA as a case study. Specifically, it examined the communication systems, measured the performance of employees, and identified the most useful channel of communication from the employee point of view, and identified barriers and breakdowns in the communication systems of the organization.

Finally, it determined the relationship between effective organizational communication and organizational performance. Primary data was employed and a sample of 200 employees in the Enugu metropolis was purposively selected… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

Recommendations

The correlation found between the measure of effective communication and organizational performance implies there should be improved efforts at ensuring information provided by management are thorough and understandable. Moreover, other channels of communication such as the use of notice boards can be explored. In addition, email/internet communication must be improved… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

REFERENCES

Acquaah, M. 2011. Business strategy and competitive advantage in family businesses in Nigeria: the role of social networking relationships. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 16(1), 103-126. (Organizational Communication)

Ainobushoborozi Antony (June 2013), Impact of Effective Communication On Labour Productivity In Civil Engineering Projects A Case Study Of Kampala Central Division. (Organizational Communication)

Aldakhilallah, K.A. and Parente, D.H. (2002) “Redesigning A Square Peg: Total Quality Management Performance Appraisals, (Organizational Communication)” Total Quality Management, 13(1), 39-51.

Alhassan, A., Pumidonming, W., Okamura, M., Hirata, H., Battsetseg, B., Fujisaki, K., Yokoyama, N., Igarashi, I., (2006), Development of loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) method for diagnosis of equine Piroplasmosis (Organizational Communication); National Research

Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan (Organizational Communication).

Allen, M. W. (1992): Communication and organizational commitment: perceived organizational support as a mediating factor. Communication Quarterly 40 (4): 357-367.

Anchor Z. (2009): Point Research 2009, Frame-Pattern-Circuits, published by TU Delft Urbanism, 2009

Barker, R. T. (1979). The department and implementation of a communication audit related to selected systems concepts. Michigan: Florida State University.

Bertalanffy, L. von (1988). General Systems Theory: Foundations, Development, and Applications. New York: Braziler.

Beyerlein, M. M., McGee, C., Klein,G. D. Nemiro, J. E., and Broedling, L. (2003); The Collaborative Work System Fieldbook: Strategies, Tools, and Techniques. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.

Booth, A. (1986). The Communication Audits. Aldershot: Gower Publishing Company Ltd.

Borman, W. C. and Motowidlo, S. J. (1997) Task performance and contextual performance: The meaning for personnel selection research. Human Performance, 10(2): 99-109.

Bratton, J., M. Callinan, C. Forshaw, and P. Sawchuk (2007): Work and organizational behaviour: understanding the workplace. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Chen, Ni. (2008). “Internal/Employee Communication and Organizational Effectiveness: a study of Chinese 
corporations in transition.” Journal of Contemporary China 17(54) (February), 167-189.

Cheryl H. (2013), Organizational Communication for Results: A Guide for Business and the Professions Interscience Management Review (IMR) ISSN: 2231-1513 Volume -2, Issue-2, 2012.

Cornelissen, J. (2008): Corporate Communication: A Guide to Theory and Practice. 2nded. London: SAGE Publications. (Organizational Communication)

Davis, K (1967): Human Relation at work 3rd ed.Ny: Hill (Organizational Communication)

De Ridder J. A., (2004). Organizational communication and supportive

Ducharme, L. J., & Martin, J. K. (2000): Unrewarding Work, Coworker Support, and Job Satisfaction. Work and Occupations, 27(2), 223-243. (Organizational Communication)

Dvorak, P. (2007): How understanding the “why” of decisions matters. Wall Street Journal. B3… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

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INTRODUCTION

The internet has been developing way much at a rate beyond initial expectations. It has become the medium choice for people to search for information, conduct business, and enjoy entertainment. It offers an abundance of information that is accessible to anyone with an Internet connection. Recently, with the progressive influence of social media, the information culture of many people has changed. Services such as Facebook, Twitter, and eBay increasingly determine everyday life and offer new ways of communication.

Hence, it is sometimes hard to imagine modern societies without people who spent hours on the Internet chatting with their friends, reading news, playing games, or working. This trend of transformation in online behavior will definitely hold true in many more decades to come.

Today’s technical transformation standards are available through networked technologies modems rendering earlier forms of cable broadband seem antiqued hence raising the question: Is the Internet just another form of communications medium that is equivalent to the earlier forms such as telephony or broadcasting and hence subject to similar regulatory control by states or has it become something different altogether?

Broadcasting (television, the radio, and cable), as well as telephony (fixed and mobile), have been regulated almost from their invention, rendering their use to be subject to the laws of most if not all the states. “These laws are an ultimate determinant as regards the lawful and unlawful uses of the technology by controlling their use via the administrative and judicial powers of the state. The Internet has with no doubt proven to be different.”

“Law enforcement understood in the broadest sense to encompass both public and private law is unusually problematic in the special environment of cyberspace.

Not only can it be difficult to locate an anonymous or pseudonymous internet user within any specific territorial jurisdiction, but also the global nature of the internet decreases the likelihood that the parties to online disputes will be subject to control by the same territorial law enforcement entities”

For example: Consider the difficulties faced by country B of prosecuting an individual resident in country A for material on the Internet that is illegal in country B but lawful in country A. This has in most instances advanced the legal issues relating to Conflicts of Laws.

This created a quagmire for the application of state laws for Internet transactions. Such laws applied to crimes relating to defamation, hate speech, intellectual property. As technology advances, we are seeing the evolution of the threat of cyberspace security where hackers and fraudsters are becoming more sophisticated and grouping in organized networks worldwide.

In Kenya, the Communications Association of Kenya (CAK) and the government generally have been tasked with a specific mandate to facilitate access that leads to increased use of the cyberspace… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

The Cyberlibertarians

This is the legal writing on the subject of the regulation of the Internet. Much of the writing in this field is not the traditional academic legal discourse. It has been filled with metaphors as large as the outback and political /legal/cultural/social ideas rooted in various libertarian dogmas.

“Cyberlibertarians, in line with the classic libertarian thinking is marked by distaste for government and faith in the market about regulation.” Indeed the Internet is and will continue being a medium that will prove to be extremely difficult or impossible to control as the Internet has transcended geographical borders and is built-in anonymity.  The internet has also proved to be a space of freedom, a bringer of the benefits of liberty, free speech, and democracy… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Questions

The main question this research seeks to answer is whether and how the challenges of data use and abuse arise and how they can be curbed, including the possibility of its trans-border use through the applicability of coercive powers in an evolving technological environment, e.g. regulating the interception of telecommunications and strengthening electronic surveillance of various information networks.

Hence, rendering illegal some material and requiring service providers to comply with critical as well as special obligations that include taking into account problems caused by particular measures of information security, such as encryption… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

THE INTERNET AS A THREAT TO SOVEREIGNTY

Introduction

Cyber Crime is the latest type of crime that affects many people. It refers to the criminal activities taking place in computerized devices or computer networks.

This includes (but not limited to) intentionally accessing without permission, altering, damaging, deleting and destroying the database available on the computer or network, and unpermitted access on a database or program of a computer in order to devise or execute any unlawful scheme or intent to wrongfully control or obtain money, property or data.

Cybercrime poses one of the biggest challenges for the Police, Prosecutors, and legislators. Most of those indulging crimes of this nature are usually the young teens, recreational computer programmers, and persons having vested interest. Cybercrime practiced is virtually in the form of offenses such as tampering with the source code of a program, hacking into computer systems, the publication of information considered obscene, and misuse of digital signatures and or licenses.

The problem is multifold as it covers the crimes related to economy and social crimes such as pornography which has its basis in certain moral standards and uses parameters like indecency and obscenity… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

“Terrestrial Crime” versus “Cybercrime”

Cybercrimes differ from terrestrial crimes: “They are easy to learn how to commit; they require limited resources relative to the potential damage caused; they can be committed in a jurisdiction remotely (one need not be physically present), and are often not clearly illegal.”

Until the last century, crime was at a small-scale, consisting of unlawful acts committed by an individual or a few loosely-associated individuals and directed against a single victim or an entity. Some offenders, of course, sought to make crime their profession, but their activities remained at a small-scale and limited to the repetitive commission of certain single-victim offenses.

The “crimes,” were generally consistent across societies, and fell into standards, and clearly-defined categories that reflected the basic categories of anti-social motivations: crime was murder, robbery, and rape. Criminal tendencies were more personal; if the offender(s) and the victim were not familiar with each other, they were likely to share community ties that put offenses into a manageable and knowable context. This not only facilitated the apprehension process of offenders-who stood a good chance of being identified by the victim or by reputation but it also gave citizens the illusion of some security.

The conceit that they could avoid victimization if they avoided certain activities or certain associations. Law enforcement locally dealt effectively with this type of crime as its parochial character meant a limited scope of investigations and the fact that crime incidences stood in relatively modest proportion to the local populace size. Law enforcement’s effectiveness in this regard contributed to a popular perception that a form of social order was being maintained and that crime did not go unsolved or unpunished… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

What Measures Are Being Taken to Combat Cybercrime at the National and International Levels?

Since the 1970s, there has been a consensus growth in existing criminal laws covering the variety of computer-related crimes . . . either they do not cover some computer abuses or are not strong and clear enough to discourage computer crimes and allow expeditious prosecution.

The recognition of the inherently transborder nature of cybercrime by various international and supranational organizations, has led to the ensuing limitations of unilateral approaches, and the need for international harmonization of legal, technical, and other solutions.

In particular, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Council of Europe, the European Union,  the United Nations, and Interpol have played leading and important roles in building international awareness and cooperation in this regard… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Harmonization of Conventional State Regulations

Introduction

“It is generally accepted that some degree of harmonization between countries is vital if effective regulation of cybercrimes is to be achieved”.  Although many offenses are transnational in nature — for instance, human trafficking, weapons and drugs, money laundering, and terrorism but cybercrime presents unique challenges due to the inherently transnational nature of the underlying technology. No other type of crime can become transnational so effortlessly.

The Bredolab Botnet, for example, was estimated to have infected 30 million computers at its peak, generating 3 billion infected emails per day. At a more fundamental level, the nature of modern communications is such that even where offender and victim are in the same jurisdiction, evidence of the offending is almost certain to have passed through, or to be stored in, other jurisdictions.

In a recent United Nations study, over half of responding countries reported that ‘between 50 and 100 percent of cybercrime acts encountered by police involved a “transnational element”… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Comprehensive

To date, the focus of cybercrime laws around the world has largely been on the aspect of criminalization — creating new offenses or adapting existing offenses to address the challenges of cybercrime. However, this is merely one aspect and from its inception the Convention sought to provide a comprehensive response, addressing issues of substantive offenses, procedural laws, and international cooperation. Aside from provisions concerned with ancillary and corporate liability and sanctions the Convention provides for four broad categories of substantive offense: (1) offenses against the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of computer data and systems;  (2) computer-related offenses (computer-related fraud and forgery); (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Protective

The goal of harmonization, particularly across such a broad spectrum of laws, will inevitably come into conflict with differences in national principles, whether legal or cultural. This is most apparent in the protection of individual rights, where the tension between the need to improve law enforcement capabilities whilst protecting individual freedoms and privacy has been recognized for some time.

Recent revelations concerning ‘almost-Orwellian’ government programs for the bulk collection of metadata have dramatically underscored the need to ensure due process and effective rights protection in the digital environment. This has recently prompted the United Nations to state that it is deeply concerned at the negative impact that surveillance and/or interception of communications … as well as the collection of personal data, in particular when carried out on a mass scale, may have on the exercise and enjoyment of human rights’… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusion

To see harmonization as a destination is unrealistic; it is a process. As the technology evolves and changes so too our responses will need to evolve and change. Each country has the obligation to determine what it considers necessary to effectively combat cybercrime, looking to national, regional, and international standards in enacting laws that best suit its national circumstances.

About 3,000 cybercrime-related incidences are reported in Kenya every month according to a tally released by an organization tracking internet security… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Recommendation

Cyberspace is the fifth common domain – after land, sea, air, and outer space. This calls for a greater need for national and international coordination, cooperation, and legal measures. A cyberspace treaty or a set of treaties should be the global framework for peace, security, and justice in cyberspace.

As part of the progressive development of international law, it is important to note that, despite the binary debate about the Convention versus a United Nations Convention in some way presents a false dichotomy. Each country should be able to determine what it considers necessary to effectively combat cybercrime, looking to the national, regional, and international standards in enacting laws that best suit its national circumstances.

Nonetheless, the Convention provides a crucial benchmark against which such efforts can be measured, providing an internationally recognized framework for the harmonization of cybercrime laws… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Adomi E & Igun S E Combating Cybercrime in Nigeria (2008) p.718-719 Johnson and Post, ‘Civic Virtue’ 1998

Pawlak, P. (ed.), Riding the digital wave: The impact of cyber capacity building on human development.

Salifu A The impact of internet crime on development (2008) p.438

Solove D J The Digital Person: Technology and Privacy in the Digital Age, (2004) New York University Press, New York and London pp.1-17 at p.

Susan W Brenner, ‘The Council of Europe’s Convention on Cybercrime’ in Jack M Balkin et al (eds), Cybercrime: Digital Cops in a Networked Environment (New York University Press, 2007) 207, t 210–12.

JOURNAL ARTICLES

(Bomse, 2001). (. For an interesting and rather scathing polemic the ideology driving cyberlibertarians,; read the California Ideology http://media.wmin.ac.uk/HRC/ci/calif5.html (the author makes no claim to being unbiased.) UCLA Journal of Law and Technology.

“Love bug” Prompts New Philippine Law, US Today (June 14, 2000), available at http://www.usatoday.com/life/cyber/tech/cti095.html

< http://www.eff.org//Publications/John_Perry_Barlow/barlow_0296.declaration>

Alana Maurushat, ‘Australia’s Accession to the Cybercrime Convention: Is the Convention Still Relevant in Combating Cybercrime in the Era of Botnets and Obfuscation Crime Tools?’ (2010) 33 University of New South Wales Law Journal 431, 432

Alisdair A Gillespie, ‘Child Protection on the Internet — Challenges for Criminal Law’ (2002) 14Child and Family Law Quarterly 411, 411–12.

REPORTS

Australian Law Reform Commission, Classification — Content Regulation and Convergent Media, Report No 118 (2012). (Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)

Brigitte Acoca, ‘Scoping Paper on Online Identity Theft’ (Ministerial Background Report No DSTI/CP(2007)3/FINAL, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2008) 16–24; Model Criminal Law Officers’ Committee of the Standing Committee of Attorney’s-General, ‘Identity Crime’(Final Report, March 2008). (Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)

Broadband Commission for Digital Development, ‘The State of Broadband 2012: Achieving Digital Inclusion For All’(Report, International Telecommunication Union, September 2012). Convention Explanatory Report.(Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)

Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers, Recommendation No R (89) 9 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on Computer-Related Crime (adopted 13 September 1989). (Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)

Explanatory Report, Council of Europe, Convention on Cybercrime, 171 (November 8, 2001), http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/CadreListeTraites.htm  (Jurisdictional Conflict) (Jurisdictional Conflict)

NEWSPAPER ARTICLES

DAILY NATION By Lilian Ochieng’ on Tuesday January 28, 2014 (Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)

STANDARD DIGITAL By Linah Benyawa on Tuesday June 7, 2016 (Jurisdictional Conflict) (Jurisdictional Conflict)

INTERNET SOURCES

‘Putin Defi es Convention on Cybercrime’, CNews (online), 27 March 2008 <http://eng.cnews.ru/news/ top/indexEn.shtml?2008/03/27/293913>. (Jurisdictional Conflict) (Jurisdictional Conflict) (Jurisdictional Conflict)

Australia, Belgium, France, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States: see Council of Europe, List of Declarations Made with Respect to Treaty No 185 http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ ListeDeclarations.asp?NT=185&CM=8&DF=&CL=ENG&VL=1 (Jurisdictional Conflict)

Balancing Act News Update Africa’s policies forces begin to gear up to fight  cybercrime http://www.balancingactafrica.com/news/back/balancing_act_184.html (Jurisdictional Conflict) (Jurisdictional Conflict)

Caller ID Traced “Love Bug” Virus, APBNEWS.COM, (May 15, 2000), at http://www.apbnews.com/newscenter/internetcrime/2000/05/15/lovebugid0515_01.html (Jurisdictional Conflict)

Charges Dropped Against Love Bug Suspect, USA TODAY, (Aug. 21, 2000), available at http://www.usatoday.com/life/cyber/tech/cti418.html

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College Social Network Project Php :

Abstract

Web application intends to provide a well-established web-based Social Network system between a job seeker and a recruiter. This documents a networking system scope, functionalities, requirements and feasibility. This project aims to develop a website which provides a Communication among peoples on network, which works quite similar to Social Media Site. This website also provides the features of writing and posting a post or any event all at one place. The main idea behind it is to share the job related details posted by placement officer via adding a post which can be read by all the student as well as faculty using the website. This web application can be handled by the admin and manage student as well as faculty.The following points are implemented in proposed system:– Students can register and login into the system once their registration is approved by the admin.– Once the student logged in into the system, he/she can write and post an articles on various topic of his/her choice. Also he/she chat with the other students.– Students can also upload images with their post.– All students can view News Feed posted by individual student.– All the student registration will be approved/rejected by the admin as well as, all the post will be kept pending until admin approves/rejects each and every post.– Admin Login has full authority on system, he/she can add/delete Faculty.– Placement officer can create a list of students by specifying the department and criteria. List will include Basic Details, Marks and Backlogs.– Officer can add post and it will be sent for approval to admin.– Staff can view student profiles and also can post event who’s details will be sent via SMS to students.College Social Network Project Php

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INTRODUCTION

Background Study

A movable crane is a machine that is capable of raising and lowering heavy objects and moving them horizontally. Movable cranes are distinguished from hoists, which can lift objects but that cannot move them sideways. Movable cranes are also distinguished from conveyors that lift and move bulk materials, such as grain and coal, in a continuous process.

The word crane is taken from the fact that these machines have a shape similar to that of the tall, long-necked bird of the same name. Human beings have used a wide variety of devices to lift heavy objects since ancient times. One of the earliest versions of the movable crane to be developed was the shaduf, first used to move water in Egypt about four thousand years ago. The shaduf consists of a long, pivoting beam balanced on a vertical support. A heavyweight is attached to one end of the beam and a bucket to the other.

The user pulls the bucket down to the water supply, fills it, and then allows the weight to pull the bucket up. The beam is then rotated to the desired position and the bucket is emptied. The shaduf is still used in rural areas of Egypt and India. As early as the first century, the movable crane was built that was powered by human beings or animals operating a treadmill or large wheel.

These early movable cranes consisted of a long wooden beam, known as a boom, connected to a rotating base. The wheel or treadmill powered a drum, around which a rope was wound. The rope was connected to a pulley at the top of the boom and to a hook that lifted the weight.

An important development in movable crane design occurred during the middle ages when a horizontal arm known as a jib was added to the boom. The jib was attached to the boom in a way that allowed it to pivot, allowing for an increased range of motion. By the sixteenth century, movable cranes were built with two treadmills, one on each side of a rotating housing containing the boom.

Movable crane continued to rely on human or animal power until the middle of the nineteenth century when steam engines were developed. By the end of the nineteenth century, internal combustion engines and electric motors were used to power movable crane. By this time, steel rather than wood was used to build most cranes… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objectives

The objective of this project is categorized into general and specific objectives:

• General objectives: The general objective of the research project is to design and produce portable and moveable lifting crane to lift heavy loads that are beyond the capacity of human beings applying only small force in the production machine shop.
• Specific objectives: The details of the objectives of the research project are listed as follows: (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of the Problem

Nigeria’s aspiration to be among the world’s first twenty industrialized nation by the year 2020 may not be met unless adequate and endogenous workshop equipment is deployed to supplement imported ones in all its maintenance and production shops. Available data from the Nigeria Ports Authority shows that about 900,000 vehicles were imported into the country between 1992 and 2003.

This figure has increased geometrically in the last ten years. According to the Nigeria Auto-Industry Quarterly Update 2012, the country has an annual demand of 300,000 new vehicles (Business Monitor International, 2013). Repair and maintenance of these vehicles are regular and must take place for their continued operation.

This informs the reason for the ever-increasing number of such automobile repair shops in the country. Most shops, however, are grossly unequipped for proper handling and job execution in the shops. Sound professional best practice aimed at workshops injury and accident prevention and reduction ensure the utilization of appropriate tools for any job.

Motor vehicle repair and maintenance often require the lifting of the entire vehicle or sub-assembly part of it or the lifting up and down of its heavy components. Also in other industries and welding shops, there are items and repairs which need the employment of shop cranes.

The lack of shop crane utilization in our industries and automobile repair shops not only leads to injury and accident but also to poor repair and maintenance occurrence… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

Background History of Crane Evolution

This literature review revealed the movable crane selection and most of the work has been conducted using knowledge-based systems to select the most appropriate movable crane for building. Shapira and Glasscock (1996) have described the culture of using mobile and tower movable crane for building construction. They demonstrated project characteristics and compared tower cranes and mobiles movable crane to select the favored alternative.

They further found that the selection of cranes for a project is affected not only by project-specific considerations but also by prevailing external conditions that often are the cumulative effect of the characteristics of a whole project population. Movable crane use and evolution started with the needs in the erection of anvil and structural works. Traveling cranes of the hand-operated type were in use in the 1880s.

About this time complicated designs of powered motion were offered by English and American builders involving a driving shaft along the runway and multiple clutches for transferring the power of the driving shaft to the hoist, trolley, or bridge motions.

Successive crane development ran thus: 1880 saw the hand-powered movable crane, 1900 the electrically driven movable crane with a motor for each motion; by 1920 definite standards had been established for a movable crane in general and for various types of services; 1940 brought the enclosed gear cases, roller bearings, and standardized designs; and 1960 produced the changes in crane control which resulted in smoother operation, safer handling of the load, remote operation and new safety features for protection of equipment and personnel (Greiner, 1967).

From the cranes used in building and structural engineering works, movable cranes have been developed for all cadre of material handling jobs in the manufacturing and service industries. As a result, many different varieties of crane exist. Broughton (1958) grouped all cranes into four main categories, which remain applicable today, as enunciated by Thompson Geoffrey (2007):

Overhead Travelling Crane: This consists of fixed rails lying on one or two elevated girders with the trolley or crane bridge (with hoisting apparatus) that can transverse the length of the rails.

Fig 2.1 Overhead Travelling Crane

The Jib Crane: This consists of an inclined member that can rotate about a central point and suspend the load from the outer end of the inclined member.

Fig. 2.2 The Jib Crane

Gantry Crane: This is a girder or girders connected to vertical members which are either fixed or move along tracks at the base of the vertical member, the hoisting equipment can usually traverse the bridge girder or girders.

Fig 2.3 Gantry Crane

Cantilever or Tower: This is a vertical mast with a horizontal cantilever that rotates horizontally around the vertical member. The trolley and hoisting equipment moves along the… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

METHODOLOGY

Design Work

The designing work was carried out using Pro E software. The required dimensions of the driver and the driven wheels were taken as per the design equations. Pro E is the most widely used design software which helps in designing 2 as well as 3-dimensional models using simplified alphabetical and numerical commands. Both the driving and the driven wheels were drawn to the required dimensions using the circle command. A slot was cut on the Geneva wheel using the trim tool. It was then edited using poly-line command and the remaining slots were constructed using the array tool. The crankpin and the driving wheel were drawn to the required dimensions.

Design Criteria

There are three major considerations in the design of cranes.

1. The crane must be able to lift the weight of the load;
2. The crane must not topple;
3. The crane must not rupture.

Lifting Capacity

The lifting capacity of hydraulic crane mainly depends on the following:

1. The lever: A balance crane contains a horizontal beam (the lever) pivoted about a point called the fulcrum. The principle of the lever allows a heavy load attached to the shorter end of the beam to be lifted by a smaller force applied in the opposite direction to the longer end of the beam. The ratio of the load’s weight to the applied force is equal to the ratio of the lengths of the longer arm and the shorter arm and is called the mechanical advantage.
2. The Pulley: A jib crane contains a tilted strut (the jib) that supports a fixed pulley block. Cables are wrapped multiple times around the fixed block and round another block attached to the load. When the free end of the cable is pulled by hand or by a winding machine, the pulley system delivers a force to the load that is equal to the applied force multiplied by the number of lengths of cable passing between the two blocks. This number is a mechanical advantage.

Design & Fabrication of Hydraulic Floor Crane 2014 Trinity Institute of Technology & Research, Bhopal | Department of Mechanical engineering Page 14… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS

Table 4.1 Specifications of the Project

1. Design of vertical column

The vertical column is modeled as a strut or short compression member thus it is exposed to compressive stress and this stress is the sum of simple stress component and flexural (bending) components

Figure 4.1 Vertical column

Therefore: c=0.15m/2, e=1.6m

The column cross-section subjected to compression stress is

Figure 4.2 Cross Section of Vertical Column

The area of the column cross-section is

= [0.15*0.13) − (0.116*0.136)]m² = 3.724*10⁻³ m²

Moment of Inertia

I_xx = ( 0.15*0.13)³ − (0.136*0.116)³ /12

(2.74625 −1.769)*10⁻⁵ m⁴

I_xx = 0.97725*10⁻⁵ m⁴

I_yy = (0.13*0.15)³ − (0.116*0.136)³ *10⁻⁵ /12

I_yy = 1.22089*10⁻⁵ m⁴

NOTE: Buckling always occurs about the axis having a minimum radius of gyration or least moment of inertia, therefore in our case buckling occurs along the horizontal direction (I_xx)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION

Results

After a successful fabrication of the machine, it is imperative to test or evaluate the machine’s performance. Hence, the test was conducted as follows;

(i) Selection of standard loads to be lifted (1000N, 2000N, 3000N, etc.)

(ii) Hook the selected load to the arm of the movable crane

(iii) Lock the control valve… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Conclusion

In this research work, critical study and analysis of the working principle of a hydraulic movable crane were carried out with a detailed analysis of the machine component. From the study, the design was based on ways of improving safety, weight, ergonomics, aesthetics, cost, and durability.

From the result obtained, it can be concluded that the hydraulic crane will do a lot of good to technicians and maintenance engineers at local automobile and plant repair workshops because it would save the time and energy which might be expended on the crude way of lifting and moving heavy loads within the workshop… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

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INTRODUCTION

Background of the study

Although international development organization has been linked to social and economic development in countries such as China and India, most African countries have made relatively little progress in reducing poverty despite a substantial amount of aid (Besley & Burgess, 2007).

It is estimated that between 1956 and 2006, the total amount of foreign aid disbursed to developing countries, including Sub-Saharan African countries totaled over $2.3 trillion dollars. For the African continent, over $568 billion dollars of the total amount of aid during this fifty years period are recorded to have been distributed to this region (OECD, 2006; Easterly, 2006a; Powell & Ryan, 2006; Easterly, 2007b).

Grounded in the big push theory (Abuzeid, 2009), an international development organization has been promoted as a solution to the unstable environment and weak socio-economic growth. According to the theory, financial assistance from international development organizations in the form of development aid is necessary to foster economic, social, human resource and technological development and ultimately poverty reduction.

This is because international development organization provides investments in health, education, social services, business development, and infrastructure deemed necessary to create sustainable and growing economies based on stable employment, healthy levels of trade and rule of law (Francois & Sud, 2006). Foreign support is a core explanation behind the disbursement from the international development organization and assistance to developing countries.

The ‘big push’ model is still widely accepted by foreign donors and other western nations as the keyway in which Africa can be raised from its current state of economic and social instability and under-development to the position of a developed region (Easterly, 2005; 2007; Burnside & Dollar, 2000), multilateral donors such as the World Bank and IMF, have continued to provide large amounts of official development assistance (ODA) of over $1.53 billion dollars to developing countries between 2005 and 2016 (OECD, 2016) … (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of the Problem

Research also suggests that the aid work of international development organizations in a well-governed environment with good policies can result in better results from foreign aid. Conversely, there is evidence that recipient countries with poor policies and governance environments inhibit the impact of foreign aid (Burnside &Dollar, 2000; Collier & Dollar, 2001, 2002; Brautigam & Knack, 2004; Lgbaekemen, et al. 2014).

For example, Moyo (2009) explains that foreign aid has not only been ineffective in supporting the economic growth in African countries but that it has exposed Africa’s leadership, the government and the system at large to corruption due to the lack of credibility (see also Dunning, 2004; Nielsen, 2013).

Since most official development assistance disbursed to Africa is often released on ineffective terms, it makes it easier for the disbursed funds to be siphoned through corruption and ultimately destroys the power of free enterprise by making African countries aid-dependent for a larger percentage of their future budget (Moyo, 2009; Weylandt, 2013)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objectives

The broad objective of the study is to examine the overall impact of the International Development Organization in an Unstable Environment using Nigeria as a case study. Specifically, the study seeks to examine the following objectives;

1. The role of international development organization on economic development… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

This chapter reviews the research evidence on the relationship between foreign aid, development, and corruption in Africa as supported by the literature. The chapter also identifies related findings based on the literature and opportunity theory of corruption which explains the relationship between foreign support, governance, and corruption in Africa.

International Development Aid and its History in Africa 

The history of international development aid can be traced back to the 1950s. During this period, international development aid was largely characterized by military assistance during the first and second world wars (Lumsdaine, 1993; Kai, 2013) as well in the form of food aid because of the need for world-wide sustenance after the Second World War.

Of note in the history of international development, aid was the need for the rebuilding of Western Europe after the world wars through the Marshall Plan (De Long &Eichengreen, 1991). The Marshall Plan was put in place to create financial investment strategies and to support the rebuilding of damaged economies and infrastructural facilities during the war.

The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the International Trade Organization (ITO) were core international organizations created to provide and facilitate foreign support after the Second World War. This was largely in the method of granting large amounts of capital in the form of loans and grants to encourage investments for the reconstruction needed after the outcome of the Second World War.

This act of financial support for development and reconstruction to promote global development led to the history of foreign support in its different forms and dimensions to countries of the world including Sub-Saharan African nations (De Long & Eichengreen, 1991; Lumsdaine, 1993; Kai, 2013)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

The Big Push Theory 

The big push theory is one of the early models of analysis used by economists to explain how the national savings of poor countries is less than the demands for their survival. The big push theory is the notion that holds that any developing country needs support from external donors to promote its development (Easterly, 2005).

African countries have been regarded as developing countries due to their social and economic status, especially since the average daily living in Africa is between $1.5 and $2 US dollars (World Poverty Statistics, 2016).

In this view, poor countries like the African countries are assumed to need huge foreign support or Official Development Assistance (ODA) as the means to close the poverty gap and to maintain sustainable social and economic systems… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

International Development Organisation and socio-economic development in Africa

Furthermore, donor countries have been found to often support developing countries with which they have cultural and political ties (Ram, 2003). Ram found that donor countries with these strategic ties have more of their benefits at mind than the supposed notion of supporting the development of their aid recipient countries.

In other words, donor countries or bilateral aid donors, unlike the multilateral aid donors, disburse more aid support to recipient countries that they anticipate being able to manipulate based on the shared strategic ties. The self-interest motive at the heart of the donor countries comes to play as they are able to covertly or indirectly manipulate the recipient countries as a condition of aid disbursement.

The implication of such an approach is breeding corruption in the recipient countries’ system of governance in as much as they consider the self-interest conditions outlined by the bilateral aid donors (Ram, 2003). Recipient countries are thus indirectly conditioned to adjust their governance and institutional policy towards accommodating the pre-determined conditions set out by the donor countries for aid allocation (Dunning, 2004; Zafar, 2007; Nielsen, 2013)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Summary

Evidence supporting that infrastructural aid may provide more opportunity for siphoning the funds more than the other forms of foreign aid was also presented in this chapter.

I used the opportunity theory to argue that aid allocation is usually released to developing countries because of the benefits that may be accruable to donor countries from aid recipient countries and thus leading to corruption and the atmosphere of lax governance and institutional quality for aid recipient countries… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Introduction

This chapter is concerned with the method used in carrying out the research. This will be done to show the research design and how the answers to the research questions were obtained. The researcher finds it necessary to use the following instrument in order to analyze; impact of international development organizations in an unstable environment. The main areas of concern in this chapter include; Research approach, Research Design, Method of data collection, and Method of data analysis.

Research Approach

This research aims to find out the impact of an international development organization in an unstable environment, and to achieve this, qualitative research seems most appropriate.  The Qualitative research design is suitable for discovering the experiences of people (Vishnevsky & Beanlands, 2004).

The first part of the approach shows a logical relationship between theory and research where theory is eventually generated from the research… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Design

Crowe et al. (2011) explain that the case study is useful ‘when there is a need to obtain an in-depth appreciation of an issue, event, or phenomenon of interest, in its natural real-life context. This study’s context reflects the unstable political, economical, social, and environmental conditions in the country while attempting to examine aid effectiveness.

Only an in-depth approach such as a case study in an affected area could do justice to the research. The main objective of this research is to look at the link between the effectiveness of the international organization and political and socio-economic development… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

• Introduction

Although organizations within the United Nations system are the first to come to mind when we speak of international bodies, the term refers to a plethora of organizations, inter-governmental, governmental and non-governmental, whose origin may be local, national, regional or global but whose outreach is “international”.

These institutions may be found in all countries, developed, developing, middle-income, countries in transition, those in or emerging from conflict, and so on.

• Role of International Organisations

The role of any organization is dependent on the aim or purpose behind the formation of such a body. There is always an interesting area that attracts member states. The present-day realities show that international entities play various roles which range from intrastate, intra-regional to international roles.

However, the general roles of international organizations include: acting as a forum for interaction among the member states and aiding cooperation, assistance in solving problems that are beyond state capacity, acting as instruments for furthering foreign policy interests for states, etc… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Contribution of International Development Organisation towards Political and Economic Stability

Economic development is the development of the economic wealth of countries, regions, or communities for the well-being of their inhabitants.

From a policy perspective, economic development can be defined as efforts that seek to improve the economic well- being and quality of life in a community by creating and/or retaining jobs and supporting or growing incomes and the tax base, economic development is a policy intervention endeavor with aims of economic and social well-being of people.

Typically it involves improvements in a variety of indicators such as literacy rates, life expectancy, and poverty rates. Essentially, a country’s economic development is related to its human development, which encompasses, among other things, health and education. (Jose, 2003)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

The Relationship between Aid Effectiveness and Socio-Political Stability

Beyond the contribution to the economic stability of the nation, Nigeria has also received help in the security of lives and properties of its citizens from international organizations. The one that readily comes to mind is the role of the African Union in the combat of Islamic insurgency in Nigeria.

Islamic insurgency (BokoHaram) is a national menace and embarrassment. The terrorist group through suicide attacks, indiscriminate bombing, and community attack made Bornu state a nightmare. The level of insecurity got to unimaginable height, and almost beyond the national troops. The African Union, however, came to the aid of Nigeria through the Chad troops.

The troops drove the Islamic militants out of the border towns which marked the beginning of victory over the terrorist group. The Commonwealth of Nations of which Nigeria is a member has been contributing immensely to the security issues in Nigeria… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

Recent and existing literature shows that foreign aid and governance are crucial to any nation’s social and economic development. Some studies suggest that since foreign aid increases corruption in recipient countries, it can be utilized positively in nations with effective governance measures.

• Conclusion

International organizations play a very key role in national development. Nigeria had at certain times contributed to the national development of some other countries like the peacekeeping mission in Liberia under ECOWAS. However, Nigeria has benefited immensely from other international institutions. These organizations had played a key role in the various aspects of national development. It has also been seen that membership to these international bodies has some disadvantages… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Recommendations and Suggestions for Further Studies

It may appear that using GDP annual growth and health spending is not enough measures for development but these measures were selected based on the availability of data across all countries of interest for this research.

Most other development indicators for Sub-Saharan African countries from the data source have too many missing data and will end up not being a true representation for the Sub-Saharan African region… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REFERENCES

Abuzeid, F. (2009). Foreign Aid and the “Big Push” Theory: Lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa. Stanford Journal of International Relations, Vol. XI, No. 1

Addison, T., Mavrotas, G., & McGillivary, M. (2005). Aid to Africa: An Unfinished Agenda. Journal of International Development, Vol. 17, p. 989-1001

Ajie, H A & Wokekoro, O. E. (2012). The Impact of Corruption on Sustainable Economic Growth and Development in Nigeria. International Journal of Economic Development Research and Investment. 3(1), 91-109

Akers, R.L. (1991). Rational Choice, Deterrence, and Social Learning Theory in Criminology: The Path Not Taken, 81 J.Crim. L. & Criminology 653

Akinola, S. R. (2008). Coping with Social Deprivation through Self-Governing Institutions in Oil Communities of Nigeria. Africa Today, 55(1), 89-107

Alesina, A. & Dollar, D. (2000). Who gives Foreign Aid to whom and Why? Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 5, p. 33-63

Alesina, A. & Weder, B. (2002). Do Corrupt Governments Receive Less Foreign Aid? American Economic Review, September, 92

Anten, L., Briscoe, I., & Mezzera, M. (2012). The Political Economy of State-Building in Situations of Fragility and Conflict: From Analysis to Strategy. Conflict Research Unit, Netherlands Institute of International Relations ‘Clingendael. Armed Conflict Data Set. Retrieved fromhttp://global-growing.org/en/content/fact-7-aboutthree-quarters-african-population-live-less-2-half-population-less-125-da (International Development Organization) (International Development Organization)(International Development Organization)

Atuyambe, 1. (2013). Corruption and Development Assistance in Uganda: Why the Uganda Government Needs to Embrace Citizen Participation and Social Accountability Initiatives. (International Development Organization)(International Development Organization)

Azfar O. (2005). Corruption and the Delivery of Health and Education Services. In: Spector B.I (ed). Fighting Corruption in Developing Countries: Strategies and Analysis. Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press, pp. 181-212. (International Development Organization)(International Development Organization)

Besley, T. & Burgess, R. (2007). Halving Global Poverty. Journal of Economic Perspective. Volume 17, No. 3, 2007, pp. 3 – 22. (International Development Organization)(International Development Organization)(International Development Organization)(International Development Organization)(International Development Organization)

Birdsall, N., Savedoff, W., Mahgoub, A., & Vyborny, K. (2011). Cash on Delivery. A New Approach to Foreign Aid (Revised Edition) (International Development Organization) (International Development Organization)(International Development Organization)(International Development Organization)

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This paper presents findings of a study that examined the impact of year-round education on academic achievement in a large Utah school district. Student-achievement data for years 1990-95 were compared by type of school schedule. A case-study component examined the impact of school schedules used by two elementary schools–one adhered to a traditional calendar and the other followed a multitrack year-round calendar. Data were gathered through interviews with all four administrators and all six fifth-grade teachers and through a survey of 114 fifth-grade students and 123 parents. Multitrack schools appeared to provide a slightly superior educational experience for students in terms of enhancing reading ability as well as in terms of increasing the bottom of the range of scores within a schooi. Parents of both srhool types generally supported their respective school programs and calendars. Student academic performance in multitrack year-round schools over a 6-year period exceeded the performance of students in traditional schocls, while nonacademic outcomes were roughly equal. The findings also identified issues that required more attention–issues of support services, inservice and professional development, staff collaboration and communication, and vacation time. However, administrators believed that these difficulties could be overcome by utilizing different communication strategies, by changing the timing of inservice activities, by extending school activities into the community, or by sponsoring a variety of public events. Some criteria for examining the efficiency of school schedules are suggested. Clarification of the distinctions between those school differences that are conceptual and those that are operational is important. Three tables are included. (Contains 24 references.) (LM1) Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made .from the original document. YEAR-ROUND EDUCATION: IS IT WORTH THE HASSLE? Carolyn M. Shields Department of Educational Studies, The University of British Columbia, 2126 Main Mall, Vancouver, V6T 1Z4 Phone: 822-6381 email: Cshields@ubc.ca fax: 822-9297 A paper presented at the UBC Robson Square lecture series, January 1996. Running Head: Is it worth the hassle?… 0.0 S, DEPARTMENT,OF EDUCATION TiCD CATIONAL RESOURCES INFORLIATION CEN1ER tERIC) nts document cuis been repiothe ed d’i 1 received born PH, polso0 nri 01q,ninni,lborl orqinaling it CJ himor change% hAve bm. 01.1110 1. mprnee rvprorluci.or nillahtv 0. at!. 0 . * Ion urneol d tnli,”,! olliime OE RI v..,,Inon Or pow; “PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (MCI Is it worth the hassle? 2 Year-round schooling is just another innovation that the Ministry is trying to implement on the backs of administrators.” The year-round schedule is a more natural way of learning. It is an advantage as it gives us a forum to debate the whole issue of change. Are we setting ourselves up to always deliver education cheaper? Why are we doing this? YEAR-ROUND EDUCATION: IS IT WORTH THE HASSLE? For approximately 25 years, a number of school districts throughout the United States have experimented with a variety of forms of year-round schooling. By 1992, it was estimated (Mydans, 1991) that 1.3 million students in 23 sta .es were being educated in some adaptation of a year-round model. In Canada, although the topic of year-round schooling has been studied with varying degrees of intensity for most of this century, very few projects have actually been implemented. In 1991, Williams Lake, British Columbia began to implement single-track yearround schooling, followed in 1992 by a few schools and districts in Alberta, with Canada’ first multi-track school, Terry Fox Junior High School, opening in Calgary in July, 1995. In November 1995, the BC Ministry of Education introduced a plan to offer financial incentives to both schools and districts willing to implement what it calls an efficiency schedule for a trial period of five years. Nevertheless, the comments cited at the beginning of this page and numerous others suggest that there is considerable conflict concerning the merits of introducing difference academic calendars into BC schools. rurther, it appears that finding useful material in the available literature requires considerable diligent and careful separation of fact from opinion. It is sometimes difficult to determine the relevance of the literature because there have been few yearround schooling projects in Canada. In addition much of the work which has been done elsewhere lacks clarity concerning the effects of different calendars and accompanying instructional changes, the type of schedule which is being discussed, whether the perceptions being described are based on experience and knowledge, or on impressions and hearsay; especially there has been lack of clarity concerning conceptual as opposed to operational issues. Is it worth the hassle? 3 This paper will present research conducted in Utah (the state with the second highest number of year-round schools) and will attempt to separate many of the issues identified above. In the first phase of the study, which is still ongoing, I have examined student achievement data by school type for a large school district over a six year period to determine the effects of different schedules. I also studied the impact of three different elementary-school schedules (traditional, single-track year-round, and multi-track year-round) by interviewing administrators and fifth grade teachers, and by surveying the fifth grade students and their parents. At present I am enlarging the study to include six Utah schools, six Alberta schools, and whatever BC schools choose to implement an efficiency schedule. Following a brief overview of the relevant literature, the presentation and analysis of the data, the paper will identify, for purposes of further discussion, some possible criteria for the examination of efficiency schedules, some important conceptual issues which need further clarification, and some of the implications of the present study. OVERVIEW OF LITERATURE Existing literature identifies six major issues related to school-year organizational practices. Of major concern to policy makers, educators, and the general public is the impact of different organizational arrangements on students in terms of academic learning as well as student attitudes and behaviors. Other issues have been identified related to the impact on educational personnel (administrators, teachers, and district level), the effect on parents and families, on community life, and on facility use. The fiscal implications, costs and benefits, constitute a critical consideration. Finally, the role of policy agencies and governing bodies is raised occasionally. Many studies report that year-round schooling has a positive impact on student grades (Baker, 1990; Bradford, 1993; Peletier, 1991; Perry, 1993). Others find neither positive nor negative impact (Goren & Carriedo, 1986; Haze Iton et al, 1992; Zykowski et al. 1991). In fact, only one study (Quinlan et al. 1987) reported some negative effects on student achievement. However, the complexity of the effects of different calendars on student achievement is frequently Is it wo;-th the hassle? 4 4,1 confounded in the literature. Sometimes there is no indication whether single-track or multi-track arrangements have been studied. Some studies mention that a changed calendar has been accompanied by changes in instructional strategies or curriculum (interdisciplinary or thematic instruction, team teaching, etc.); but, little attention is paid to the nature of the changes or the extent to which a similar change without a new calendar might be associated with similar differences in student achievement. In terms of non-academic effects, in general the research indicates that year-round education is associated with positive student attitudes (Alkin, 1983; Baker, 1990; Gandara. 1992), with improved student attendance (Bradford, 1993; White, 1987), and with reduced vandalism and crime (Brekke, 1983; Merino, 1983). The literature also identifies an increased workload for administrators (Alkin, 1983; Shields & Oberg, 1995), and both positive and negative impacts on teachers (Christie, 1989; Webster & Nyberg, 1992). The situation is similar for parents, although the large majority of parents who have experienced both traditional and year-round calendars support the latter (Alkin, 1983; Zykowski et al, 1991). In fact, many articles focus on pre-implementation concerns -concerns which Shields & Oberg (1995); and others (Alkin, 1983) have found tend not to persist after implementation. Other reports claim “success” or “failure” after only one year of implementation (Baker, 1990; Greenwell et al. 1993), with almost exclusive and inappropriate reliance on student achievement as measured by standardized test scores. Other literature falls under the heading of advocacy, both for (Ballinaer, 1987; Brekke, 1985) and against (British Columbia Teachers Federation, 1994; Kirman, 1991). Finally, the consensus with respect to fiscal costs and benefits is that single-track yearround schools may (but do not have to) cost more than traditional schools; indeed, this is especially related to the type of extra or intercession programs schools may choose to operate Multi-track schools, in contrast, seem to cost more to operate than would the same school on a traditional calendar, but significant costs may accrue to a district in terms of per pupil

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