ABSTRACT

The study focuses on assessing the impact of the use of accounting software in preparing the financial statements of commercial banks in Nigeria. The center of attention was on three commercial banks namely GT bank, FCMB, and First Banks; all in the Benin City, Edo State. A stratified sampling technique was used to select this sample.

The Banks were stratified as follows: computerized and networked bank computerized but not networked and partially computerized. The main objective of this work is to explore how Accounting software has forever changed many aspects of business and accounting practices especially in preparing financial statements and to consider the main reasons for the reluctance of some Commercial banks to adopt and utilize this new capability.

The focus of the research was on areas that the researchers considered very critical in accounting software… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

The increasing globalization of the world economy precipitated organizations the world over to compete in the global marketplace leading to the emergence of a new set of accounting challenges such as multiple currencies and follow a horde of accounting and tax rules. Thus, a more refined accounting software packages competent of managing international accounting intricate issues are increasingly in need (Adhikari, Lebow & Zhang, 2004). However, great technology advancement has rendered the options of using accounting information from a strategic point of view.

The adoption of Accounting Software becomes major aspect in determining the survival, growth, and success of an organization as firms require more information, be it monetary or non-monetary, to deal with a higher scale of uncertainties in the competitive market and require data processing capacity and system to ameliorate to suit their information needs (Van de Ven & Drazin, 1984) in this global economy era… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of the Problem

Since the 1950s, when technology started to be applied in business (Otieno and Oima,2013), most developing countries in the world have abandoned the use of a pen and a paper and started to adapt to the use of accounting software to facilitate the generation of quality, quick and accurate financial reports… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objectives

The following are the objectives of this study:

• To investigate the impact of accounting software on the bank payroll financial preparation and reporting in the banks… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

The use of Accounting Information Systems (AIS) is a widely researched topic. While there is much research on the impact of Accounting Information Systems (AIS) in general; there is little research specifically on accounting software and its impact on financial reporting. Accounting software, however, is widely used in many corporate bodies including SMEs.

For example, in Australia, the Yellow Pages (1997) reported that 76% of the small businesses surveyed had at least one computer, and 75% of this used accounting software. Burgess (1997) in a review of IT adoption by Australian small businesses concluded that the main software application package used was accounting (Burgess 1997 and Wenzler 1996)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Accounting

Accounting is not only the oldest but also the most stable of the management disciplines.  In spite of its stability and continuity, accounting has seen major changes during the past century. It would be surprising if a century from now, accounting is the same as today. Although we cannot look so far ahead, we can analyze the current conditions for clues about what to expect in the next decade or two (Sunder 1999). Accounting provides financial information about a business or a not-for-profit organization… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Accounting Systems

Every company applies to account because it is generally accepted that companies have to reveal certain financial and management information to economic users and of course because accounting is an indispensable tool in the business decision-making process. Accounting is an important part of every company thus; businesses are required to keep proper books of accounts (Section 123 of the Companies Code (1963), Act 179). “Accounting can be divided into two basic categories: those which apply manual accounting and those which prefer accounting software” (Weber, 2010).

Manual Accounting System and its Shortcomings

Briefly, a system is a set of interdependent elements that together accomplish specific objectives. The manual accounting system is an information system and Romney & Steinbart (2009) defined an information system as an organized means of collecting, entering, and processing data and storing, managing, controlling, and reporting information so that an organization can achieve its objectives and goals. Tanis and Dalci (2002) emphasized that the information system has the following components; Goals and objectives, Inputs… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Figure 2.1 A Manual Accounting System Model

At first look, it is not very difficult and it is so indeed, but when there are thousands or millions of transactions the situation dramatically changes. Lots of transactions that must be processed in the accounting… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

IMPORTANCE OF ACCOUNTING SOFTWARE

accounting software is important to businesses in various ways. The use of computers is time-saving for businesses and all financial information for the business is well organized (Baren, 2010).

• Time and Cost Savings

Using accounting software saves companies time and money. The use of a computer makes inputting accounting information simple. Transactions are entered into the system and the system processes and posts transactions accordingly. Accounting software reduces staff time preparing accounts and reduces audit expenses as records are neat, up-to-date, and accurate. Better use is made of resources and time; cash flow should improve through better debt collection and inventory control. More importantly, the system helps present financial reports on time to aid in the economic decision-making process of external users.

• Organization and Accuracy

Accounting software enables businesses to stay organized. When information is entered into the system, it makes finding the information easy. Employees can look up any financial information whenever it is needed. There is less room for errors as only one accounting entry is needed for each transaction rather than two (or three) for a manual system. The accounting records are automatically updated and so account balances (e.g. customer accounts) will always be up-to-date… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Commercial Banking in Nigeria

Nair and Fisshab (2010) researched innovations in rural and agriculture finance in rural and community banks in Nigeria and found out that in Nigeria, commercial banks are the largest providers of formal financial services in rural areas. It was revealed that by the end of 2008, Nigeria had 127 Commercial banks with a total of 584 service outlets, representing about half of the total banking outlets in the country.

Facts also have shown that, before the late 1970s, rural dwellers in Nigeria had almost no access to institutional credit for farm and nonfarm activities, and in many rural communities, secure, safe… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The Research Design

The research strategy adopted by the researchers is the multiple case study approach. The reason for this choice is to increase the reliability of the report as findings of the companies will be compared to find out the extent to which they follow a regular pattern.

Population

This study focused on 25 registered Commercial banks in Benin City, Edo State.

Sample and Sampling Technique

A stratified sampling technique was used to select this sample. The Banks were stratified as follows: computerized and networked bank, computerized but not networked, and partially computerized… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The Need for Accounting Software

Of the three banks selected, two have already adopted Accounting software, First Bank and FCMB. However, GTBank is still in its adoption process. The two banks adopted Accounting software for several reasons including the under-discussed.

Increase in Efficiency and Effectiveness

At the turn of the millennium, the financial sector in particular, and the business environment in general, has become very competitive. In their quest to achieve the organizational goal of maximizing shareholders’ wealth through better customer service, the two banks adopted Accounting software suitable for their operations. They are of the belief that Accounting software help produces quality information that helps in the efficient and effective performance of their operations… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Operations of the company were voluminous

One of the main authorized businesses of a bank is to receive money (deposits) from the public and as well as lend or advance money as loans to the public. Banks, therefore, encounter a whole lot of people who are either coming in to make deposits or borrow. This, therefore, leads to a large number of transactions within which to process and also a huge database that must be maintained… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Source: Field Survey, May 2012

It must, however, be emphasized that the major factor considered by the banks before adopting their systems is to a large extent in line with what Waterfield et al (1998) said in their work that the use of computers in business is to ensure that all business and financial information is well organized effectively and efficiently.

It is however contradictory with Raymond and Bergeron (1992) who argued that businesses implement accounting software because of the advent of low-cost microcomputers among other reasons… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

The research was organized to assess the impact of the use of Accounting software in the financial reporting of commercial banks in Nigeria. The study also had another objective of bringing out the problems encountered in the use of Accounting software. Advancement in technology is now the order of the day. Businesses are constantly looking for cost-effective, economic, and efficient ways of satisfying customers’ needs.

Thus, there is a need for businesses to be abreast of the current issues in technology to enhance their business. This is to help gain a competitive advantage over their competitors especially in this era where there are more banks springing up… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Conclusion

The study revealed that because of the numerous benefits that are associated with accounting software, more importantly, its ability to produce and present relevant and faithful representative financial reports to end-users, the government of Nigeria is assisting all Commercial banks to migrate onto common accounting software known as Terminus 24 through the Millennium Development Account.

This is going to serve as a platform in which all the commercial banks in the country are going to be networked to each other to facilitate faster and efficient banking… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Recommendations

Based on the empirical findings of the study, the following recommendations are offered to commercial banks in particular, and the players in the banking industry.

• The government, through ARB Apex Bank, should reinforce its computerization policy for commercial banks… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REFERENCES

ABS (Australian Bureau of Statistics), (2000), Catalogue 8129.0 Business Use of Information Technology, Australia. Commonwealth of Australia

Baren, V., (2010), The Importance of an accounting software, available on http://www.ehow.com/facts_6786562_importance-computerized-accountingsystem.html#ixzz10yS7obSs; Accessed: 27/10/11

Beaver, William H. (1978) “Current Trends in Corporate Disclosure”, Journal of Accountancy, V.147: http://www.capitalideasonline.com/articles/index.php?id=2224

Burgess, S., 1998, Information Technology in Small Business in Australia: A summary of

Recent Studies, Paper presented to the USASBE Conference, Florida; January 15-18. [Available online on http://www.sbaer.uca.edu/Research/1998/USASBE], Assessed on 20^th October, 2011

Business dictionary (2011) http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/capital allowance.html, accessed on 15^th February 2011

deSaintis, J., A brief history of Accounting: From prehistoric to the Information Age. Available at http://ensign.ftlcomm.com/historyacc/researchpaperfin.htm (accessed 28 September, 2011)

Elliot, B & Elliot, J (2006): Financial Accounting and Reporting, 11^th ed.: Pearson Education Limited, Harlow, England

Frenzel, C. W., (2006), Management of Information Technology

Gelinas, U., Sutton S., and Hunton, J., (2005) Acquiring, Developing and Implementing Accounting Information System, 6th Ed.: Thomson South-Western Education College, Cincinnati

Gorton, M., (1999): “Use of financial management techniques in the UK-based small and medium-sized enterprises: Empirical research findings”, Journal of financial management and analysis, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp 56-64

Grabski, S., and Marsh, J. (1994), “Integrating Accounting and Manufacturing Information Systems; an ABC and REA-based approach”, Journal of Information Systems: pp 61-80

Greuning, H., V. (2006): International Financial Reporting Standards; A practical guide, 4^thed. The World Bank

Head, B., (2000), “Small Business Should Log On and Write Off,” Business Review Weekly, March 24th, 22(11).

Kimunya, A., Fishstein, P., and Gaul, N., (2000): Guide to computerising your accounting system: The Manager, Vol. 8, No. 4

Nair, A., and Fisshab, A., (2010), Commercial banking: The case of Rural and Community Banks in Nigeria, International Food Policy Research Institute and the World Bank; July, Focus 18 Briefs

Nash, J., Heagy, C., and Courtney, H (1999): The design, selection, and implementation of accounting information systems: Dame Publication Inc., Houston

McMahon, G., and Holmes, S., (1991), “Small Business Financial Management Practices in North America: A literature review”, Journal of Small Business Management, April, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp 19-30

Paton, A., (1922): Accounting Theory; with special reference to the corporate enterprise, Kessinger Publishing (2009)

Proudlock, M., Phelps, B., and Gamble, P., (1999), “IT Adoption Strategies: Best Practice Guidelines for Professional SMEs,” Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 6(3), 240-252.

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ABSTRACT

The study found out that the condition of shopping bag littering has gone from bad to worse due to unchecked littering. Besides visual pollution, Plastic shopping bag litter is non-biodegradable and thus accumulates. Its disposal method is a challenge as Plastic shopping bag waste recycling is not economically viable. Plastic shopping bag litter contributes to a blockage of sewers and drainages, poses a threat to biotic species and abiotic components when incinerated, buried, or dumped.

Furthermore, when filled with rainwater, Plastic shopping bag paper bags litter become breeding grounds for mosquitoes, which cause malaria. In landfills, it acts as a habitat for vectors that transmits pathogens like flies and rodents.  There is no immediate alternative that is likely to replace Plastic shopping bags in the near future… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

According to the International Facility Management Association (IFMA), “FM is the practice of coordinating the physical workplace with the people and work of the organization”. It integrates the principles of business administration, architecture and the behavioral and engineering sciences FM covers these two main areas: ‘Space & Infrastructure’ (such as planning, design, workplace, construction, lease, occupancy, maintenance, furniture, and cleaning) and ‘People & Organization’ (such as catering, ICT, HR, accounting, marketing, hospitality).

Sustainability is also an important aspect of FM practice, it deals with conserving and enhancing the community’s resources so that ecological processes on which lives depend are maintained and the total quantity of life now and in the future can be increased. “We do not inherit the earth from our ancestor we borrow it from our children” (Iroquois Nation – Sustainability, Facility Management & IFMA 2012), a facility management professionals must focus on ecologically sustainable development in areas such as waste reduction, recycling, energy and resource management, and other similar strategies.

As the demand for environmentally friendly and high-performance buildings escalates, it is also essential to study some of the practices in our wider community that currently contribute to an unnatural deterioration of the environment at either local or global levels. This project thus seeks to study the impact of polythene and Plastic shopping bags waste on our environment especially as it affects Lagos state… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of Problems

Plastic shopping bag pollution is a problem that has truly ‘gone global’. Fragment of plastics has been carried by planetary-scale ocean currents to the remotest corners of the world, including both Arctic and Antarctic wilderness areas. Action is needed at a range of scales to address the degradation of Earth’s oceans and shorelines by Plastic shopping bag debris (Simon Oakes 2010)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objectives

The aim of this study is to examine the impact of polythene and Plastic shopping bags on the Lagos environment and show the reason why producing biodegradable Plastic shopping bags is the only way to reduce drastically the current huge polythene and Plastic shopping bags waste being generated in Lagos State.

The specific research objectives are as follows:

1. To analyses the impact of waste generated through polythene and Plastic shopping bags in
2. To assess the contribution of recycling and incineration of polythene and plastics bags in the elimination of the current 23% Plastic shopping bag waste being generated in Lagos… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

Conceptual Review

Littering is a condition where waste is strewn or scattered about; resulting in a condition of disorder or untidiness (Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 1997). Accordingly, Plastic shopping bag litter consists of waste Plastic shopping bag carrier bag that has been disposed of improperly, in an inappropriate location by means of throwing the waste Plastic shopping bag onto the ground as opposed to disposing of them properly.

The distinction between dumping and littering is defined by volume, the location of the disposed waste, or the method of waste disposal, (Collins Thesaurus Dictionary, 2002)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

The Origin and Global Spread of Plastic Shopping Bag

Plastic shopping bags were designed and made from a Plastic shopping bag by Swedish engineer Sten Gustaf Thulin in the 1960s . The design was patented worldwide by Celloplast; a well-established company in plastics processing in 1965 (Cherrier,2006). The Company’s patent position gave it a virtual monopoly on plastic shopping bag production, and the company set up manufacturing plants across Europe and in the US.

Other companies saw the attraction of the Plastic shopping bag, too, and the US petrochemicals group Mobil overturned Celloplast’s US patent in 1977… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Theoretical Framework:

This study was be informed by the structural-functional theory of social change, the theory of social disorganization, anomie or strain theory, and learning theory of behaviorism.

• Structural –functional Theory of Social Change

Social change refers to modifications of the way people seek ultimate meaning in life (Gerth, 1953). According to Gerth (1953), these modifications may include, the introduction of new techniques, new ways of making a living, and changes in place of residence, new innovations, ideas, and social values. Many sociologists view social change as a change in the structure of society or alteration of the social structure (Ginsberg, 1958).

Others stress that social change is not only a change in the structure but also in the functioning of society, (Allen, l97l). Social change is also conceptualized as the process of planned or unplanned qualitative or quantitative alterations in social phenomena, (Vago, 1996)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Research Design

Research design is a comprehensive master plan of the research study to be undertaken, giving a general statement of the methods to be used. The function of a research design is to ensure that requisite data in accordance with the problem at hand is collected accurately and economically, (Adams (1985).

Adams (1985) describes research design as an understanding of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a way that combines their relationships with the research to the economy of procedures. Adams (1985) suggests that research design deals with the detailing of procedures that will be adopted to carry out the research study… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Introduction

This study presents the data analysis and interpretation of the results. The analysis was done as per questionnaires that were used to collect data. The study targeted a population of 120 respondents and they all responded giving a response rate of 100% which according to Mugenda Mugenda (1993) a response rate of more than 80% is sufficient enough for the study.

Gender of the respondents

The respondents were asked to show their gender. This was expected to guide the researcher on the conclusions regarding the degree of congruence of responses with the gender characteristics. Figure 4.1 below shows the study finding.

Figure 4.1: Gender Response

The results as in figure 4.1 show that majority of the respondent were female at 55% while the male was 45%. The results of gender distribution indicate that the female gender is more than men in Apapa. It can be attributed to the number of factors such as environment gender adaptation, gender urbanization, and natural sex ratio theory of 1:5. Generally in any society, if the ratio of men: women remain at 1:1; the society is likely to experience a strain in the co-existence equilibrium… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material) 

Distribution of Age Group

The respondents were asked to disclose their age. The figure below shows the study findings:

Figure 4.2: Plastic shopping bag Usage by Age

The results presented in figure 4.2 show that a large proportion of 46.7% of the respondents was aged between the ages of 21 to 30 years; this was followed by a significant percentage 33.3% that were aged between 31-40 years. 8.3% were aged 41-50 years, 5% were aged 18-20 years 4.2% were aged 61-70 while 2.5% were aged between 51-60 years.

The conclusion drawn from the above table indicates that the majority of the Apapa residents are primarily young people who should be given adequate considerations in finding solutions to Plastic shopping bag littering… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusion

The process of urbanization in Nigeria has provided the impetus for social disorganization or anomie. The result is that the collective purposes of the society are less fully realized than they could be under a different, better-organized system. When there is no provision of a shared set of priorities among these competing obligations, the individual’s behavior has become unpredictable in the urban setup.

The anomy existing in the urban set up has been exploited by the capitalist to sell their merchandize uncontrollably. Capitalism is an open-ended, internally contradictory process and it produces manifest and latent functions that are difficult to predict and control. Capitalism has dynamics that are driving social changes that are full of new risks called “manufactured risks” that are incalculable in origin and indeterminate in their consequences.

These risks are created by the impact of human knowledge and technology on the natural world… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Recommendation

Because there is no roadmap to these new dangers and risks for capitalism, modernity or urbanization that has resulted in Plastic shopping bag littering impacting on biotic species and abiotic components adversely, individuals, counties, organizations and the government of Nigeria including the international community of states also known as “global risk society” must negotiate risks as they make choices how to live is to be lived… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REFERENCES

Aadland, D. & Caplan, A. (2006), Curbside recycling: waste resource or a waste of resources? Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 25(4) 855-874.

Adams, G.and Schvaneveldt.1985.Understanding Research Methods, Longman Inc.New York. Akullian, A., Karp, K., & Austin, D. (2006). Durbin, Plastic shopping bag externalities and policy in Rhode Island. Brown Policy Review.

Allen Francis R.Social- Cultural Dynamics: An Introduction to Social Change.New York: Macmillan,1971.

Allen, F.B (1990), Social-Cultural Dynamics: An introduction to Social Change MA polity press Amani Mehdi, The Urban Explosion, UNESCO Currier, 1992. (Shopping Bags)

Bahri,D. & Girum, S. (2005). Sustainable Management of Plastic shopping bag Waste: The Case of Lagos, Nigeria. IIIEE Reports: 03, Sweden. Banks, Sam, 2008. Plastic shopping bags: Reducing Their Use Through Regulation and Other Initiatives. Report for Parliament of Canada: Industry, Infrastructure, and Resources Division. (Shopping Bags)

Beychok, Milton R. (January 1987). “A database for dioxin and furan emissions from refuses incinerators”. Atmospheric Environment 21 (1): 29–36. (Shopping Bags)

Bhari Girum: Thesis on Sustainable Management of Waste: Case Study of Lagos, Sept 2005. (Shopping Bags)

Bjerkli, C. L. (2005). The cycle of Plastic shopping bag waste: an analysis of the informal Plastic shopping bag recovery system: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. (Shopping Bags)

Bogdom.R and S.Biken 1992. Qualitative Research for Education. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, USA. (Shopping Bags)

Bohm, Roberts M. Introduction to Criminal Justice. Department of Criminal Justice and Legal Studies University of Central Florida, Orlando,1996. (Shopping Bags)

Borg and Gall.1993. Education Research.An Introduction. Longman, New York. (Shopping Bags)

Carroll, AB. Business and Society: Ethics and Stakeholder Management, South-Western: Cincinnati, Ohio, 1992. Chambers English Dictionary 2000. (Shopping Bags)

Chandran, (2004). Research Methodology. World Scientific Ltd. London Changsha Norbu Consultancy, (2009). Study on Poly Bags and Strategies to Reduce Their Use. Prepared for the Royal Society for Protection of Nature. Bhutan. (Shopping Bags)

Cherrier, H. (2006). Consumer identity and moral obligations in non-plastic shopping bag consumption: a dialectical perspective, International Journal of Consumer Studies Vol 30 No. 5 pg 515– 523. (Shopping Bags)

Clapp J, Swanston L, Williams J (2008). Single-use Plastic shopping bag shopping bags: Issues for the region of Waterloo to consider. University of Waterloo, Faculty of Environmental Studies, Waterloo, USA. Vol.1, pp. 2-13 (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

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ABSTRACT

This project work is aimed at examination of jollof rice served in hotels for pathogenic organisms and to find out possible pathogenic organisms in the food. Samples were collected from the hotels and were brought to the laboratory for analysis. The samples were homogenized and serial dilution of the sample was made out using 5ml sterile pipette and test tubes… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

The intention of food safety is to prevent food poisoning (the transmission of disease through food and to maintain the wholesomeness of the food product through all stages of processing until it is finally extern. No one doubts the importance of food in our lives. All active living organisms must have a constant serviced of energy this energy may be supplied by materials a cell or organism has stored internally (e.g our fat or carbohydrate) or it may come from an external source in the environment food (Nutrition) supplies two major components of life, ENERGY and the chemical building blood of life, (Bor).

Energy is required for the various enzymatic reaction that requires an input of energy for the reaction, the catalyze for example the movement of the muscles on our legs during a race, in the intestine as we digest our meal, or to draw air into lungs for breathing all require energy.

Food also supplies the structural material required for living organisms to make new macromolecules for the repair of the damaged structure or for new construction such as the manufacturing of offsprings. Apart from its vital function of sustaining life; food is referred to as labors of pathogenic organisms, if not prepared in a tidy and clean environment. This has been recognized as a problem in some restaurants in Enugu, concerned with providing proper food for consumers. Pathogenic organisms exist in two major categories.

INTOXICATIONS –INFECTION: Intoxication is a result of ingesting toxins produced by microbes that have grown on the food prior to it being eaten. Infection is the result of the food serving as a carrier that carries an infection pathogen deep into the juicy recesses of a body where it is able to gain afoot. Generally, food pathogenic organism results from contamination of food and the subsequent growth of food pathogenic organisms.

Food poisoning outbreaks are recognized by the sudden onset of illness with a short period of time among many individuals who has eaten or drunk one or more food (Jollof rice) in common. Single cases are difficult to identify unless in botulism for example there are distinct symptoms. Food pathogenic organisms may be one of the most common causes of actuating illness, yet cases are difficult to identify in Botulision.

For example, food pathogenic organism may be one of the most common causes of acute illness. Yet cases and outbreaks are generally under-recognized and under-requited.   The number of bacteria present: food (jollof rice) may be used to determine whether or not the food (jollof rice) has been handled correctly. Sources, Vehicles, and Reuters of continuations

Some diseases that are spread by bacteria that enter the body in food (jollof rice) can multiply at an amazing rate when they are provided with warmth and moisture, (especially at room temperature) Our food can become an ideal home for then. Clean food (jollof rice) can be contaminated by bacterial from four main sources.

• The people present in the workplace and their clothing.
• Other food that is already contaminated.
• Dirty kitchen or work premises
• Insect and vermin.

Some time, harmful bacteria pass directly from the source of high-risk food, but usually, they rely on other things to transfer them to food. These things are called vehicles. Ihekoronye, A. and Ngoddy P.O (1979)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of Problem

Pathogenic organisms are organisms that are referred to as specific health hazards associated with gas to intestinal distribute resulting from the consumption of food containing toxins. The victim suffering from abdominal pain and diarrheas with more vomiting than diarrheas usually manifest the illness, which when untreated in time result to them does not result to death it had led to unnecessary expenses in seeking medical advice. This has now made me be interested in how we can improve our food hygiene to avoid contamination… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objective

This is to find out possible pathogenic organisms found in food (Jollof rice) sold to Top Rink Hotel and the presidential hotel to examine and identify microorganisms (bacteria) associated with the Jollof rice (food) sample collected from these hotels in Enugu. And to determines the bacteria load growth… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Significance of the Study

The significance of the work is to enable us to improve the hygiene of food (Jollof rice) served and a good knowledge of a safe food handling practice suitable light color protection clothing to be worn and it will also enable us to be aware of the various pathogenic organism and the infection they transmit through food (Jollof rice). As a result of this, the prevention of contamination of food is to be adhered to. This can be achieved by (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

Composition of Rice And Its Requirement

Rice (Oryza sativa) is cultivated in swampy areas in many tropical countries where it is mainly used for humans the composition of rice differs with the variety, nature of the fertilizer applied. About 85 percent of rice consists of milled rice is low (Alverlinoetal, 1970) but when simazine is applied to flooded soil at flowering this increases the percentage of protein in the rice grain yield. The fat content is low and it is removed in the process of milling. The digestibility of the protein is high and the nutritive value depends on its amino acid content which varies Alverlinoetal 1970).

The main protein is oryzenin which is rich in argan but poor in lysine and threonine (Hawrie 1974) the number of fat-soluble vitamins A and D is negligible, but vitamin E content of whole rice is considerable. I lusked rice has a high content of vitamin B, the riboflavin, content is low and vitamin C is practically absent rice does not contain sufficient requirement for human consumption hence various ingredient is introduced into the various preparation of rice to supplement and increase the Nutritional requirement (Eorry G. Robet Skimmer (1982).

Jollof rice is one of the major dish sold in restaurant fast food joints, it is of high demand because the ingredient used in it is preparation make up a substantial portion of the human diet.

Source of Contamination

There are various sources of food contamination. The various ways are

• Main landing (servers)

This can get the food contaminated through the serving of the food i.e a case where one’s land that are not properly washed comes constant with the food that is been served to the buyer which are the consume. The presence of microorganisms in the atmosphere. Naturally, microorganisms are known everywhere they are ubiquitous when food is been exposed they tend to infest the food as a result of this the food is been contaminated. (Trickett)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Pathogenic Bacteria Organism that is Responsible for Contamination of Jollof Rice

In the preparation of Jollof, rice ingredient is used and this ingredient has certain bacteria microorganisms responsible for their spoilage as a result of this, these microorganisms will now also be responsible or included in the spoilage contamination of Jollof rice, for instance, meet which is one of the imprudent used in the preparation of Jollof rice, is been contaminated by the following microorganisms… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Some Micro Organism Responsible for Jollof Rice Spoilage

There are so many microorganisms involved in the spoilage or contamination of Jollof rice, in this case only a few of them that are common in the spoilage will be discussed. And they are as follows.

• Salmonella

This app which is salmonella is been considered as the most principal organisms that cause the salmonella infection salmonella apparently obtained considerable alteration number on food without casing considerable alteration in the organoleptic properties of food (taste, odor, etc.).

The source of the organism includes man, which play an important role because man can excrete the organism without the symptom of illness for weeks. Humans also play an important role in cross-contamination of cooked food, other sources include the poultry, their eggs, and rodents… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Prevention of Food Pathogenic Organism

According to (Thomas) food pathogenic organism can be prevented if the following precognitions are adhered to:

• High standard of Personal Hygiene… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Samples Collection

Samples of rice (Jollof rice) were collected from the top rank hotel and presidential hotel in Enugu town. The food is collected into a sterile cellophane bag and then taken to the laboratory for analysis.

Media Used and Sterilization Method

The media used include nutrient agar (oxide) and macconkey agar (oxide).

Direction

5.6 Grammies of Nutrient agar (NA) were weighed into 200ml of distilled water in a conical flask. This was then mixed gently by shaking and they cocked with cotton wool and foil paper it was also sterilized in the autoclave at 1210c for 15 minutes… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Findings and Discussion

Table 1 shows mean values for total colony count for bacterial isolates. Four bacteria were isolated: Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coil, and Klebsiella pneumonia. B. cereus, which is mainly associated with food poisoning because of its ability to produce toxins, was present in 37.5% of samples.

Table 1: Mean values for total colony count for bacterial isolates.

Results are given as mean value ± standard deviation.

SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

With reference to the result obtained the number of organisms was found to be more than 30cfu in 100 ml of serial deletion Jollof rice when the number is more than 30cfu, it indicates pathogenicity the study confirms the presence of pathogenic bacteria in apparently Jollof rice. Rhodes et al reported that some microorganism which grows well in food may produce a toxin which when ingested will case poison in the system… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Conclusion

The food to be sold to consumers should be properly prepared with safe and portable water such water should be treated and inspected by medical officers who will certify such water for use. Also, the food to be sold to consumers should be prepared in a clean environment devoid of refuse dust striking sink, etc., the food should be sold in clean and well-covered dishes washed trays in addition to this the handler should be very careful the way they handle food to be the customers… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Recommendation

The microorganism count of retail food could be very alarming if not properly checked to ensure no further proliferation of the organisms present in the various food. Thus to reduce the organism count in food the water used for the preparation, the environment, and the utensil used should be relatively clean and inspected. If the microbial activities of the hotels in Enugu metropolis of the controlled in the preparation of food then the effects and ailments can be minimized and the disease like typhoid cholera diarrhea and fever can be eliminated… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REFERENCE

Alverlino, P,O Miller, and D. Vergara (1970) Rice: Cultivation and Processing John Wiley and sons inc. Canada Pp 132- 133.

Bor.     S. Luh (1972): Rice, Production and Utilization: Avi, Publishing Company Inc. west port, Connecticut Pg 5859.

Corryg, Robert T. & skinner F. (1982) Isolation and Identification Methods

of food poisoning organism: academic press Inc (London) Ltd 24/48 Oval Road London  NW1 Pg 25-30.

Grist D (1958) Rice, 5th Longman Group Ltd. Longman House, Burnt Mill, Harlow Essex, Cm 2021 E England Pg 450-452.

Ihekononye A.I Ngoddy P.O (1979) Integrated food science and technology

for the tropics. Macmillan press Ltd, Houndmills, Basingstoke Hampshire RG 212 x5 and London. Pg. 253-257.

Lawrie             B. (1974): Rice in the Tropics Longman Group Ltd Longman House, Burnt mill, Harlow Essex Cm 202JE, England Pg 38-43.

Lery J.J.R.C and H.H Black burn (1973). Introductory microbiology by Wiley and sons Inc New York London 2nd edition Pp 260-264.

Mottram V.H (1991). Human Nutrition 2nd Ed. Edward Arnold Publisher Ltd 25 Hill street London, W1 x 84 ll pg 220-221. (Jollof Rice)

Nicholas John (1998): Managing food Hygiene Macmillan education Hound mills, Basingstoke, Harts P.g. 1-3. (Jollof Rice)

Rhodes A and Fletcher DL (1966) Principles of Industrial Microbiology Programs Oxford PP 142 –148. (Jollof Rice)

Thomas C.G (1990) Simple Hygiene Practices: Prentice Hall Inc Pg 42 –48. (Jollof Rice)

Tickett Jull (1992) Food Hygienic for Food Handlers: Macmillan press Ltd. houndmill Basing stoke Hampshire RG 12x 5 London Pg 30.38. (Jollof Rice)

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INTRODUCTION

The internet has been developing way much at a rate beyond initial expectations. It has become the medium choice for people to search for information, conduct business, and enjoy entertainment. It offers an abundance of information that is accessible to anyone with an Internet connection. Recently, with the progressive influence of social media, the information culture of many people has changed. Services such as Facebook, Twitter, and eBay increasingly determine everyday life and offer new ways of communication.

Hence, it is sometimes hard to imagine modern societies without people who spent hours on the Internet chatting with their friends, reading news, playing games, or working. This trend of transformation in online behavior will definitely hold true in many more decades to come.

Today’s technical transformation standards are available through networked technologies modems rendering earlier forms of cable broadband seem antiqued hence raising the question: Is the Internet just another form of communications medium that is equivalent to the earlier forms such as telephony or broadcasting and hence subject to similar regulatory control by states or has it become something different altogether?

Broadcasting (television, the radio, and cable), as well as telephony (fixed and mobile), have been regulated almost from their invention, rendering their use to be subject to the laws of most if not all the states. “These laws are an ultimate determinant as regards the lawful and unlawful uses of the technology by controlling their use via the administrative and judicial powers of the state. The Internet has with no doubt proven to be different.”

“Law enforcement understood in the broadest sense to encompass both public and private law is unusually problematic in the special environment of cyberspace.

Not only can it be difficult to locate an anonymous or pseudonymous internet user within any specific territorial jurisdiction, but also the global nature of the internet decreases the likelihood that the parties to online disputes will be subject to control by the same territorial law enforcement entities”

For example: Consider the difficulties faced by country B of prosecuting an individual resident in country A for material on the Internet that is illegal in country B but lawful in country A. This has in most instances advanced the legal issues relating to Conflicts of Laws.

This created a quagmire for the application of state laws for Internet transactions. Such laws applied to crimes relating to defamation, hate speech, intellectual property. As technology advances, we are seeing the evolution of the threat of cyberspace security where hackers and fraudsters are becoming more sophisticated and grouping in organized networks worldwide.

In Kenya, the Communications Association of Kenya (CAK) and the government generally have been tasked with a specific mandate to facilitate access that leads to increased use of the cyberspace… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

The Cyberlibertarians

This is the legal writing on the subject of the regulation of the Internet. Much of the writing in this field is not the traditional academic legal discourse. It has been filled with metaphors as large as the outback and political /legal/cultural/social ideas rooted in various libertarian dogmas.

“Cyberlibertarians, in line with the classic libertarian thinking is marked by distaste for government and faith in the market about regulation.” Indeed the Internet is and will continue being a medium that will prove to be extremely difficult or impossible to control as the Internet has transcended geographical borders and is built-in anonymity.  The internet has also proved to be a space of freedom, a bringer of the benefits of liberty, free speech, and democracy… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Questions

The main question this research seeks to answer is whether and how the challenges of data use and abuse arise and how they can be curbed, including the possibility of its trans-border use through the applicability of coercive powers in an evolving technological environment, e.g. regulating the interception of telecommunications and strengthening electronic surveillance of various information networks.

Hence, rendering illegal some material and requiring service providers to comply with critical as well as special obligations that include taking into account problems caused by particular measures of information security, such as encryption… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

THE INTERNET AS A THREAT TO SOVEREIGNTY

Introduction

Cyber Crime is the latest type of crime that affects many people. It refers to the criminal activities taking place in computerized devices or computer networks.

This includes (but not limited to) intentionally accessing without permission, altering, damaging, deleting and destroying the database available on the computer or network, and unpermitted access on a database or program of a computer in order to devise or execute any unlawful scheme or intent to wrongfully control or obtain money, property or data.

Cybercrime poses one of the biggest challenges for the Police, Prosecutors, and legislators. Most of those indulging crimes of this nature are usually the young teens, recreational computer programmers, and persons having vested interest. Cybercrime practiced is virtually in the form of offenses such as tampering with the source code of a program, hacking into computer systems, the publication of information considered obscene, and misuse of digital signatures and or licenses.

The problem is multifold as it covers the crimes related to economy and social crimes such as pornography which has its basis in certain moral standards and uses parameters like indecency and obscenity… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

“Terrestrial Crime” versus “Cybercrime”

Cybercrimes differ from terrestrial crimes: “They are easy to learn how to commit; they require limited resources relative to the potential damage caused; they can be committed in a jurisdiction remotely (one need not be physically present), and are often not clearly illegal.”

Until the last century, crime was at a small-scale, consisting of unlawful acts committed by an individual or a few loosely-associated individuals and directed against a single victim or an entity. Some offenders, of course, sought to make crime their profession, but their activities remained at a small-scale and limited to the repetitive commission of certain single-victim offenses.

The “crimes,” were generally consistent across societies, and fell into standards, and clearly-defined categories that reflected the basic categories of anti-social motivations: crime was murder, robbery, and rape. Criminal tendencies were more personal; if the offender(s) and the victim were not familiar with each other, they were likely to share community ties that put offenses into a manageable and knowable context. This not only facilitated the apprehension process of offenders-who stood a good chance of being identified by the victim or by reputation but it also gave citizens the illusion of some security.

The conceit that they could avoid victimization if they avoided certain activities or certain associations. Law enforcement locally dealt effectively with this type of crime as its parochial character meant a limited scope of investigations and the fact that crime incidences stood in relatively modest proportion to the local populace size. Law enforcement’s effectiveness in this regard contributed to a popular perception that a form of social order was being maintained and that crime did not go unsolved or unpunished… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

What Measures Are Being Taken to Combat Cybercrime at the National and International Levels?

Since the 1970s, there has been a consensus growth in existing criminal laws covering the variety of computer-related crimes . . . either they do not cover some computer abuses or are not strong and clear enough to discourage computer crimes and allow expeditious prosecution.

The recognition of the inherently transborder nature of cybercrime by various international and supranational organizations, has led to the ensuing limitations of unilateral approaches, and the need for international harmonization of legal, technical, and other solutions.

In particular, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Council of Europe, the European Union,  the United Nations, and Interpol have played leading and important roles in building international awareness and cooperation in this regard… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Harmonization of Conventional State Regulations

Introduction

“It is generally accepted that some degree of harmonization between countries is vital if effective regulation of cybercrimes is to be achieved”.  Although many offenses are transnational in nature — for instance, human trafficking, weapons and drugs, money laundering, and terrorism but cybercrime presents unique challenges due to the inherently transnational nature of the underlying technology. No other type of crime can become transnational so effortlessly.

The Bredolab Botnet, for example, was estimated to have infected 30 million computers at its peak, generating 3 billion infected emails per day. At a more fundamental level, the nature of modern communications is such that even where offender and victim are in the same jurisdiction, evidence of the offending is almost certain to have passed through, or to be stored in, other jurisdictions.

In a recent United Nations study, over half of responding countries reported that ‘between 50 and 100 percent of cybercrime acts encountered by police involved a “transnational element”… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Comprehensive

To date, the focus of cybercrime laws around the world has largely been on the aspect of criminalization — creating new offenses or adapting existing offenses to address the challenges of cybercrime. However, this is merely one aspect and from its inception the Convention sought to provide a comprehensive response, addressing issues of substantive offenses, procedural laws, and international cooperation. Aside from provisions concerned with ancillary and corporate liability and sanctions the Convention provides for four broad categories of substantive offense: (1) offenses against the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of computer data and systems;  (2) computer-related offenses (computer-related fraud and forgery); (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Protective

The goal of harmonization, particularly across such a broad spectrum of laws, will inevitably come into conflict with differences in national principles, whether legal or cultural. This is most apparent in the protection of individual rights, where the tension between the need to improve law enforcement capabilities whilst protecting individual freedoms and privacy has been recognized for some time.

Recent revelations concerning ‘almost-Orwellian’ government programs for the bulk collection of metadata have dramatically underscored the need to ensure due process and effective rights protection in the digital environment. This has recently prompted the United Nations to state that it is deeply concerned at the negative impact that surveillance and/or interception of communications … as well as the collection of personal data, in particular when carried out on a mass scale, may have on the exercise and enjoyment of human rights’… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusion

To see harmonization as a destination is unrealistic; it is a process. As the technology evolves and changes so too our responses will need to evolve and change. Each country has the obligation to determine what it considers necessary to effectively combat cybercrime, looking to national, regional, and international standards in enacting laws that best suit its national circumstances.

About 3,000 cybercrime-related incidences are reported in Kenya every month according to a tally released by an organization tracking internet security… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Recommendation

Cyberspace is the fifth common domain – after land, sea, air, and outer space. This calls for a greater need for national and international coordination, cooperation, and legal measures. A cyberspace treaty or a set of treaties should be the global framework for peace, security, and justice in cyberspace.

As part of the progressive development of international law, it is important to note that, despite the binary debate about the Convention versus a United Nations Convention in some way presents a false dichotomy. Each country should be able to determine what it considers necessary to effectively combat cybercrime, looking to the national, regional, and international standards in enacting laws that best suit its national circumstances.

Nonetheless, the Convention provides a crucial benchmark against which such efforts can be measured, providing an internationally recognized framework for the harmonization of cybercrime laws… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Adomi E & Igun S E Combating Cybercrime in Nigeria (2008) p.718-719 Johnson and Post, ‘Civic Virtue’ 1998

Pawlak, P. (ed.), Riding the digital wave: The impact of cyber capacity building on human development.

Salifu A The impact of internet crime on development (2008) p.438

Solove D J The Digital Person: Technology and Privacy in the Digital Age, (2004) New York University Press, New York and London pp.1-17 at p.

Susan W Brenner, ‘The Council of Europe’s Convention on Cybercrime’ in Jack M Balkin et al (eds), Cybercrime: Digital Cops in a Networked Environment (New York University Press, 2007) 207, t 210–12.

JOURNAL ARTICLES

(Bomse, 2001). (. For an interesting and rather scathing polemic the ideology driving cyberlibertarians,; read the California Ideology http://media.wmin.ac.uk/HRC/ci/calif5.html (the author makes no claim to being unbiased.) UCLA Journal of Law and Technology.

“Love bug” Prompts New Philippine Law, US Today (June 14, 2000), available at http://www.usatoday.com/life/cyber/tech/cti095.html

< http://www.eff.org//Publications/John_Perry_Barlow/barlow_0296.declaration>

Alana Maurushat, ‘Australia’s Accession to the Cybercrime Convention: Is the Convention Still Relevant in Combating Cybercrime in the Era of Botnets and Obfuscation Crime Tools?’ (2010) 33 University of New South Wales Law Journal 431, 432

Alisdair A Gillespie, ‘Child Protection on the Internet — Challenges for Criminal Law’ (2002) 14Child and Family Law Quarterly 411, 411–12.

REPORTS

Australian Law Reform Commission, Classification — Content Regulation and Convergent Media, Report No 118 (2012). (Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)

Brigitte Acoca, ‘Scoping Paper on Online Identity Theft’ (Ministerial Background Report No DSTI/CP(2007)3/FINAL, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2008) 16–24; Model Criminal Law Officers’ Committee of the Standing Committee of Attorney’s-General, ‘Identity Crime’(Final Report, March 2008). (Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)

Broadband Commission for Digital Development, ‘The State of Broadband 2012: Achieving Digital Inclusion For All’(Report, International Telecommunication Union, September 2012). Convention Explanatory Report.(Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)

Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers, Recommendation No R (89) 9 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on Computer-Related Crime (adopted 13 September 1989). (Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)

Explanatory Report, Council of Europe, Convention on Cybercrime, 171 (November 8, 2001), http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/CadreListeTraites.htm  (Jurisdictional Conflict) (Jurisdictional Conflict)

NEWSPAPER ARTICLES

DAILY NATION By Lilian Ochieng’ on Tuesday January 28, 2014 (Jurisdictional Conflict)(Jurisdictional Conflict)

STANDARD DIGITAL By Linah Benyawa on Tuesday June 7, 2016 (Jurisdictional Conflict) (Jurisdictional Conflict)

INTERNET SOURCES

‘Putin Defi es Convention on Cybercrime’, CNews (online), 27 March 2008 <http://eng.cnews.ru/news/ top/indexEn.shtml?2008/03/27/293913>. (Jurisdictional Conflict) (Jurisdictional Conflict) (Jurisdictional Conflict)

Australia, Belgium, France, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States: see Council of Europe, List of Declarations Made with Respect to Treaty No 185 http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ ListeDeclarations.asp?NT=185&CM=8&DF=&CL=ENG&VL=1 (Jurisdictional Conflict)

Balancing Act News Update Africa’s policies forces begin to gear up to fight  cybercrime http://www.balancingactafrica.com/news/back/balancing_act_184.html (Jurisdictional Conflict) (Jurisdictional Conflict)

Caller ID Traced “Love Bug” Virus, APBNEWS.COM, (May 15, 2000), at http://www.apbnews.com/newscenter/internetcrime/2000/05/15/lovebugid0515_01.html (Jurisdictional Conflict)

Charges Dropped Against Love Bug Suspect, USA TODAY, (Aug. 21, 2000), available at http://www.usatoday.com/life/cyber/tech/cti418.html

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ABSTRACT

The world is experiencing a new global economic order which is characterized by information and communication technologies for information management.

A whole tremendous change is taking place in which the spread of knowledge has given rise to an era of knowledge and information. Hence the purpose of this thesis is to examine the general characteristics of (SME) Small and Medium Scale Enterprises and explore the impact of management information technology utilization on (SME) Small and medium scale enterprise performance in Nigeria.

The research was executed in Nassarawa state and a survey research approach of the data collection was used to gather information from 371 respondents while graphs, charts, frequency, and percentage for descriptive data presentation and data interpreted using the T-test method to prove the hypothesis… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

The business world has been impacted by a variety of changes. The population have been growing rapidly; markets have been expanding often to the multinational level; customer expectations have been rising and expanding, government demands have been multiplying, social responsibility, ecological concern, and public institutions have been growing. As might expect, such changes are creating intensive competitive pressure, posing complex decision situations, and squeezing available resources.

Organizations have responded in various ways diversifying goods and services rearranging organizational structures. Incorporating new technology, community action programs, and last but not least re-examine information systems (Oranu, 2008). Business managers today, are much more concerned about the effect of competition than they were even a few years ago.

They must react to the competitive threats not only from local sources but also from regional, national, and international sources; likewise, they must seek to explore all opportunities that are available in the immediate, national and Global environment (Ahmed, 2009).

According to Bochm, (2011), Deregulation has also increased competitive pressure for organizations to survive, grow, and prosper. In such a competitive environment, managers must employ a lot of the resources at their disposal as efficiently as possible so as to accomplish the objectives and goals of the enterprise.

Management Information System provides information in the form of reports and displays to managers and many business professionals. For example sales managers may use their networked computer and web browser to get instantaneous displays about the sales results of their daily sales analysis report to evaluate sales made by each sales personnel.

Management Information System also takes into account the integrative nature of information flow as well as the structuring of the organization around decision centers. Standards of performance are part of any good plans; hence, the determination of standards like other aspects of the planning process depends on the availability of relevant management information systems (Bodenstab, 2017).

Therefore, the management information system aids the functioning and monitoring of an organization. It also describes the components and resources to ensure the proper functioning of an organization… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of the Research Problem

In this turbulent era, organizations strive to improve their competitiveness by enhancing productivity, innovation, quality, and flexibility of services at the individual and organizational levels.  However, it has been observed by Alabi (2000) that there is the inadequacy of MIS equipment (facilities) in the Nigerian business organization, with slightly higher adequacy in SME.

Fabunmi and Isah (2004) identified personnel quantity and quality, lack of basic infrastructure as requirements for attaining efficiency in Management Information Systems (MIS) activities in business organizations… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objectives

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effect of management information systems in the business industry. Specifically, the study is to:

1. Determine the contribution of MIS to the Growth and Development of SMEs in Nigeria… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Significance of the Study

• Organizational Administration

The business administration would derive tremendous benefits from the results of the study. The principal officers of the organization could use the MIS to provide reliable, accurate, and timely information to make sound and accurate decisions towards the effective management of the business organization.

Information relating to planning, admissions, recruitment, and financial matters could be easily and timely accessed and retrieved from the MIS Database to enhance decision- making. The study would also be beneficial to the organization staff as information relating to every staff in the organization could be easily obtained… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

To properly understand the concept of Management Information System (MIS) There is a need to understand the meaning of management and information system. Management Information System (MIS) is a formal system for providing management with accurate and timely information necessary for decision making.

Management is usually defined as planning, organizing, directing, and controlling business operation. This is in line with the definition given by Henri (2002), which stated that management is “the process of allocating an organization’s inputs, including human and economic resources, by planning, organizing, directing, and controlling for the purpose of producing goods or services desired by customers so that organizational objectives are accomplished.

If management has knowledge of the planning, organizing, directing, and controlling of the business, its decision can be made on the basis of facts, and decisions are more accurate and timelier as a result”. The information enables us to determine the need to create new products and services. Information tells us to move into new markets or to withdraw from other markets (Remi, 2003)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Conceptual Framework

• Concept of Management Information System (MIS)

Lawrence (2005) defines an information system as an “a computer system that provides management and other personnel within an organization with up-to-date information regarding the organization’s performance; for example, current inventory and sales. It is usually linked to a computer network, which is created by joining different computers together in order to share data and resources. It is designed to capture, transmit, store, retrieve, manipulate, and or display information used in one or more business processes.

This system output information in a form that is useable at all levels of the organization: strategic, tactical, and operational. However, several definitions have been given to Management Information System (MIS) by many authors who might be based on their background… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Problems of Management Information System (MIS)

According to Raymond (1989), Management Information System (MIS) was described as a well-coordinated information system, a database that is to provide management with needed information to plan and make decisions. Modern technology has further made the resort to MIS in management imperative because of the changing circumstances and environment.

There is a lack of management involvement in the design and poor appreciation of management support. Finally, it is recommended that organizations, privates, and public, commercial and non-commercial should endeavor to set up an MIS unit in their organizations so that adequate information can be put at the disposal of their management… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Empirical Review

Opeke and Madukoma (2013) carried out a study on Information Use and Job Performance of Senior Non-Academic Staff in Nigerian business organization. A survey design was employed to carry out the study. The population of the study comprised of 112 approved Business organization in Nigeria. A multistage sampling technique was used to select 27 business organizations that took part in the study.

A total of 1, 804 Senior Non-academic Staff was the sample size of the study. A structured questionnaire was used for data collection. Out of 1,804 questionnaires distributed, 1,270 were completed and returned. Descriptive statistics such as frequency count, mean, standard deviation, and correlation were used to present the data… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Theoretical Review

• Classical Organization Theory

Classical organization theory evolved during the first half of this century. It represents the merger of scientific management, bureaucratic theory, and administrative theory. Frederick Taylor (1917) developed scientific management theory (often called “Taylorism”) at the beginning of this century. His theory had four basic principles: 1) find the one “best way” to perform each task, 2) carefully match each worker to each task, 3) closely supervise workers, and use reward and punishment as motivators, and 4) the task of management is planning and control.

Initially, Taylor was very successful at improving production. His methods involved getting the best equipment and people and then carefully scrutinizing each component of the production process. By analyzing each task individually, Taylor was able to find the right combinations of factors that yielded large increases in production.… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Fig. 1: Theoretical framework of modeling MIS for business organization

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Introduction

This chapter focuses on the strategies employed to execute the study. It presents the research design, the population and sample selection, method of data collection, and method of data analysis.

Research design

A survey design was adopted for this study. Ebenuwa-Okoh (2011) citing Kerlinger (1993) stated that survey is a descriptive research method aimed at discovering relative incidences, distribution, and inter-relationships of variables. This implies that the survey gathers information about variables, not individuals; the researcher, therefore, examines the opinions, attitudes, or feelings of individuals about a particular problem. This design is considered most appropriate for the study because survey studies utilize questionnaires, observations, tests, and interviews as tools in obtaining information.

Method of Data Collection

For effective and adequate courage of the research findings, the researcher used the following methods:

• Questionnaire Method: This is a lot of structure and segmental questions which are aimed at eliciting relevant data from the respondents to whom it is being administered, for the purpose of simplicity, the researcher decided to adopt the 5 point scale questionnaire format where the respondent can easily make their choice. The questionnaire checklist was designed based mostly on the aspect of material management… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Introduction

This chapter is devoted to the presentation of analyzed field data and the discussion of findings. The Statistical Package for Social Science (S.P.S.S) enabled the researcher to make relevant interpretations and discussions about the phenomenon under study in relation to the objectives. The main focus of the study is to find the role of information communication technology in the growth and development of SMEs. To aid in the clarity of the presentation, this chapter is divided into two main sections.

The first section presents the analysis and interpretation of the findings, whilst the second section details the discussions of the relevant findings from the study… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Presentation of Data Result

• Age of Respondents

Table 4.1 below indicates the age range of respondents. Out of the total number of respondents, 10 % were aged less than 25years 43.3 % were aged between 25 and 35years, 23.3 % of respondents were aged between 36 and 45years, 16.7 % were aged between 46 and 55years and 6.7 % were aged 55 years and above.

Table 4.1: Age of Respondents

Source: Field Data, January 2020.

This shows that the youth are more inclined to venture into SMEs and also embrace MIS than their older counterparts.

• Sex Distribution of Respondents

As seen from table 4.2, 63.3 % of the respondents are males whiles the remaining 36.7 % of the respondents are females.

Table 4.2. Gender Composition of Respondents

Source: Field Data, January 2020.

Figure 1: Gender Composition of Respondents

Source: Field Data, January 2020

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 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION

Summary

From the findings of the study, most of the SMEs surveyed indicated they are using management information systems against their counterparts who are not using management information systems. The survey also revealed that all the SMEs surveyed are using mobile phones. This figure seems to decrease sharply when it comes to fixed lines and internet as 53.3% indicated they have fixed lines and internet for their SMEs 50% of the respondents indicated they have postal box… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Conclusion

SMEs play an important role in the global economy: they contribute to the GDP and reduction of unemployment, especially in developing countries. Many governments around the world are pushing for SMEs to adopt MIS in order for them to survive in the knowledge economy. The Nigeria Government is no exception. The need for SMEs to adopt MIS is driven by governments, globalization, innovation, flexibility, and competitive advantage.

The adoption of MIS should take into consideration that SMEs are different and thus have different needs for MIS… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Recommendations

In summary, the recommendations for SMEs to overcome barriers and improve implementation of MIS in their businesses for growth and development are as follows:

• Promotion of MIS Education among SMEs

SMEs should invest in educating their staff and management about MIS and its benefits. As training cost is known to be of the impediments towards the development of MIS skills, this will help these SMEs acquire these skills and use them in their work. Training agencies responsible for providing MIS training to SME owners must understand not only how this group of adults learns, but also what the obstacles are that they usually face in learning technology-related subjects.

The government can also come out as a form of its adult literacy program with programs in MIS for the owners of these SMEs must increase its effort to create awareness among SMEs regarding the potential benefits of MIS to small- and medium-sized businesses… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REFERENCES

Abdulkareem, A. T., Alabi, A. T., Fashiku, C. O., &Akinnubi, O. P. (2012). Management information systems and senior staff job performance in Polytechnics, Kwara State, Nigeria. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, 3(4), 55-60.

Ahmed, M.I.(2009). Management Information systems in Business Libraries of Chhattisgarh, Raipur, India .www.htt.mtiazetplores

Aigbavboa, C., &Thwala, W. (2012). An exploration of the use of Delphi methodology in housing satisfaction studies. In: Laryea, Agyepong, Leininger. & Hughes. (Eds). Proceeding, 4th West Africa Built Environment Resources (WABER) Conference, 24-26 July, (Pp147-161), Abuja; Nigeria

Ajayi, I. A., &Omirin, F.F. (2007). The use of management information systems (MIS) in decision-making in the South West Nigerian Business. Business Research and Review, 2(5), 109 -110.

Alabi, A.T (2000).Management Information Systems (MIS) Equipment      Utilization in Federal and State Business in Nigeria. Ilorin Journal of  Business, 20,105-112.

Al-Dhmour, M.A.(2010). Evaluation of the role of management information systems (MIS) in administrative decision-making at the Business of Jordan. Masters Thesis, Business of Utara, Malaysia.

Al-Hadabi, A.S.(2007). Analysis of the environmental concepts in Science textbooks of the basic stage in the Republic of Yemen, PhD Thesis, The National Business of Malaysia.

Allen, B., Heurtebise, A., &Turmbull, J. (2010). Improving information access. Business Management US http://www.busmanagement.com/article/improving-information-access/

Alter,S.(2013). Work System Theory. Overview of Core Concepts, Extensions, and Challenges for the Future. Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 14(2), pp.72-121.

Al-zahrani, S. (2006). An information management systems model for industrial incidents in Saudi Arabia. Journal of computer science, 2(5),447-454.

Al-Zahrani, S. (2010). Management information systems role in decision-making during crises: Case study: Journal of Computer Science 6(11).1230-1234. (Management Information System)

American Heritage Dictionary (2000). 4th Edition, Boston:  Houghton Mifflin company. (Management Information System)

Aminu, J, M. (1996). Quality and stress in the Nigerian business. Maiduguri: Northern Nigerian Publishing Company. (Management Information System)

Andersson, A., Hallberg, N., Eriksson, H. ,&Timkpa, T. (2004). A Management information systems model for process – oriented Health care, from http://www.web.cs.mun.ca/-harold/course/old/CS6772/5164Andersson. (Management Information System)

Andrei, S., & Mihai, F. (2009). Solutions for decision support in business management. (Management Information System)

Atulomah,B.C.(2011). Perceived Record Management Practice and Decision-making Among Business Administrators in Nigerian. Library and Practice, 1(1) pp.7-13. (Management Information System)

Auster, E., & Choo, C.W. (1995). Managing information for the competitive edge. New York: Neal Schuman. (Management Information System)

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ABSTRACT

Employee health and safety is considered to be a major determinant of employee and organizational performance. Today, the matter of work-force health and safety at work is receiving worldwide attention; this is the major reason why most successful organizations take care of his employee health and safety.

However, many organizations often record high rate of industrial accidents, large-scale absenteeism occasioned by ill-health as a result of the neglect of health and safety. This project provides various types of employee health and safety and how it could be implemented for improved organizational performance taken Unilever Nigeria Plc as a case study… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

• Background of the Study

The industrialization has been the engine of growth for most developing countries like Nigeria and because of that many successive governments strive to find ways and means for developing their industrial sector. The influence of an enduring employee’s safety on organizational productivity and loss control in the Nigerian construction industry cannot be overemphasized, especially in the areas of setting minimum safety management standards, safe work procedures, and environmental management standards (Lourandos, 2008).

It is assumed that an organization’s employees safety measures have a direct relationship with employees’ productivity in view of the fact that assigned tasks can only be safely accomplished when the work environment is safe and conducive for the execution of the assigned duties, be it construction, manufacturing or servicing, thus, any phenomenon that affects human production capacity will invariably affect organizational productivity hence improving workers wellbeing offers a company the opportunity of enhancing its performance (Galliker, 2000)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of the Problem

In today’s workplace, whether it is on a plantation in an office, factory, institutions, etc. every worker across the globe is faced with a multitude of health hazards such as dust, gases, noise, vibration, and extreme temperatures.

This invariably results in absenteeism triggered by ill-health. Unfortunately, some employers assume little responsibility for the protection of workers’ health and safety.

It is noteworthy that the right to life is fundamental and must be considered sacrosanct. Yet every year 2.2 million men and women are deprived of that right by occupational accidents and work-related diseases (ILO, 2011)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objectives 

The major objective of this study is to examine The Impact of Industrial Health and Safety Management on Workers Productivity. Other specific objectives of this study are to:

• To determine the different types of health and safety methods essential for organizational improved performance.
• To find out the effect of health and safety management on employee performance… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Introduction

This chapter seeks to review related literature of the study through historical background information of health and safety standards in Nigeria, various literature on health and safety to empirical analyses.

Historical background information on health and safety standards in Nigeria

In Nigeria, the Occupational Health and Safety Act was established under the Factory Offices and Shops 1970 (Act, 328).  The main provisions of the Act are intended to bring it in line with internationally accepted standards on safety, health, and welfare of employees.

The occupational health and safety activities stated under the Act, include, creating safe work and work environment and promoting the safety, health, and welfare of employees in order to ensure effective utilization of human capabilities thereby promoting increased productivity.

Although Nigeria does not have a national policy on Occupational Health and Safety, the Nigeria Labour Act, 2003 (Act 651) has made provision for Occupational Health and Safety. Provisions made under Part XV Section 118 of the Act include placing a responsibility on employers to ensure a safe and healthy working environment and obligation on employees to use safety appliances provided by the employer in compliance with the employers’ instructions.

It is generally known that developing countries like Nigeria lack relevant policies to adequately cater for the health and safety of employees (Quainoo,2001).  The accident rates in manufacturing and construction in developing countries are known to be at levels that are several times higher than in industrialized countries (Clarke, 2005)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

The Concept of Occupational Health Safety (OHS) 

Safety involves more than the typical dictionary definition of “free from the accident”.    The World Health Organization, (1999) defines health as a “state of complete physical, mental, and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”.

Thus health and safety refer to preventing and protecting people from injury and occupational disease in any form due to hazards and risks that may harm, injure, cause an unsafe environment to people or damage equipment, or the facilities put in place at the workplace.

The World Health Organisation, (1999) defines health as a “state of complete physical, mental, and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”.  Thus health and safety refer to preventing and protecting people from injury and occupational disease in any form due to hazards and risks that may harm, injure, cause an unsafe environment to people or damaged equipment, or the facilities put in place at the workplace… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Safety and Productivity in the Organization 

Productivity is generally seen as a measure of the amount of output generated per unit of input. In many countries, public sector productivity has been assumed to be zero in the national accounts. According to Boyle (2006), the output of the government sector has been measured as equal in value to the total value of inputs.

This output one-forth input convention has increasingly come under scrutiny in recent years. The challenge is to devise alternative estimates based on output measurement in a public sector context where collective services are provided and where there is, in most instances, no market transaction in services provided to individuals (Boyle, 2006)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Safety Standards and Health Problems Faced by Employees

In most accidents, managers and supervisors almost instantaneously point fingers at human efforts and unsafe actions as the ultimate cause without probing deeper into the root cause of the accident. Such incidents occur due to multifaceted factors.

Human errors and unsafe actions caused by illiteracy, lack of training, poor supervision, technical flaws relating to design, layout, machine guarding, and arrangement of work (Krishnan, 1999). Very often it is found out that accidents occur in activities ancillary to the main purpose of the organization, and these activities are given less safety focus by the management.

Safety standards are an orderly arrangement of interdependent activities and related procedures that drives on organization health and safety performance.  According to Bryan, (1999), it can be defined as the plan to reduce and eliminate hazards and risk at the workplace… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Empirical Analyses on Occupational Health and Safety 

There is evidence that providing a healthy and safe working environment has the potential to increase labor productivity and in turn increase business profits.

It is also evident that there are certain requirements needed to ensure the success of health and safety intervention and subsequent increase in productivity. Such requirements include a good level of cooperation between the management and employees and the working environment in which employees are engaged to work.

A number of researches have been conducted in the sub-sectors of the manufacturing industry, construction industry, service industry, petroleum and plastics, and electronics. One such study is by Makori (2008) on the influence of occupational health and the safety of manufacturing firms in Kenya… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

• Introduction

This chapter describes the methods and procedures used to collect and analyze data in order to determine the health and safety standards in Nigeria Unilever Nigeria Plc.  Sections of the chapter include the study design, population, sample size and sampling procedures, instrumentation, data collection, and procedures for analysis and presentation.

• Study Design

A study design is a plan that explains the basic structure of the study.  It provides the procedural outline for the conduct of the study (Amedahe, 2004). The study adopted a descriptive survey design to collect data for analysis.

The survey design was consistent with the description by Sarantakos (2004) and Fraenkel and Warren (2002), that surveys are methods of data collection in which information is gathered through oral or written interviews and could be structured, more formal or a combination of the approach.  The authors stressed the need for consistency throughout the exercise to curtail errors… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Population

According to Fraenkel and Warren (2002), population refers to the complete set of individuals (subjects or events) having common characteristics in which the researcher is interested.

For the purpose of this study, the target population comprised of management, supervisors/line managers, and factory operation staff of Nigeria Unilever Nigeria Plc.  Out of a total of 202 eligible staff, 120 selected staff comprising 30 females and 90 males was selected for the study… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Sampling and Sampling Procedures

According to Amedahe (2004), sampling is the process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire population in the study.  A sample consists of a carefully selected unit of the population for a particular study (Sarantakos, 2005).

The general notion held by many researchers is that the larger the sample sizes the lower the risk of sampling errors occurring… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Table 3.1: The sample size of Respondents in the selected area

Source: Survey data 2012        n = 120

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

• Introduction

This chapter presents the views from respondents who were elicited to find out the effects of health and safety standards on productivity in Nigeria Unilever Nigeria Plc.

Primary data were collected through questionnaires to address the objectives of the study which were to: identify health and safety standards in the organization; determine the effect of health and safety on employees‟ productivity; determine employees‟ level of understanding of health and safety policies.

Also to access the attitude of management towards the health and safety of employees and identify the challenges of health and safety standards in the organization.. (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Presentation and Analysis of Preliminary Data

The first part of this chapter is a presentation and analysis of the preliminary data obtained from the study. It involves the background information of the respondents. The variables involved are the gender of respondents, age, educational background, and the number of years they have worked in the organization. Data obtained have been presented in Tables 4.1.1, 4.1.2. 4.1.3. and 4.1.4.

Gender of Respondents

The respondents were asked to indicate their gender by ticking the appropriate column they belonged to. The purpose was to find out the number of males and females who actually participated in the study.

Table 4.1.1 shows that out of the 120 respondents who participated in the study, the majority 90 of the respondents representing 70.8% were males, while the remaining 30 respondents representing 29.2% being females. Naturally, males and females have different attitudes and views toward events at the workplace (Singer, 1996).

 Table 4.1.1 Gender of respondents

Source: Field data, 2012

Age of Respondents

Table 4.1.2 depicts the age distribution of respondents who participated in the study. The purpose was to find out the average age of the employees who are actively involved in the operations within the organization.

A close look at the Table shows that 29 respondents representing 24.2% fall within the age bracket 20-29 years; 49 representing 40.8% fall within the age brackets 30-39 years.

Nineteen respondents representing 15.8% fall within

40-49 years while the remaining 23 representing 19.2% fall within the age brackets 50-59 years. The data shows that the majority of the employees in the organization fall within 30-39 years.

Table 4.1.2 Age of respondents

Source: Field data, 2012

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CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusions

Based on the findings it can be concluded that occupational health and safety practices at Nigeria Unilever Nigeria Plc are not in conformity with what has been described as “best practices”.

This is because; responsibilities of employees and management are not clearly spelled out with regards to health and safety. Employees are not trained in strategies for protection against hazards at the workplace… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Recommendations 

From the findings and conclusions of the study, the following recommendations are made.

Management should be more responsible for the needs and concerns of their employees‟ safety and health by being more sensitive to the problems of the employees.

This can be carried out by the provision of a suggestion box or other avenues for employees to give their suggestions on how safety can be improved… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REFERENCES

Alazab, L., (2003), A healthy and safe workplace. African Newsletter on Occupational Health and Safety.

Amedahe, F. K, (2004), Research Methods Notes for Teaching. Unpublished manuscript. University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast.

Baker, S. P., & Green, S. S. (1991). Injury Prevention in the Workplace. Pp. 86-99 in Work, Health, and Productivity, editors G. M. Green and F. Baker. New York: Oxford University Press.

Bavon, A., (2000), Occupational Health and Safety in Nigeria. An Agenda for reform. African Social Science Review, 1(1), 37-46.

Beach, D., (2000), The management of people at work, 7^th edition. New Jersey: Macmillan publishing company Ltd.

Bélanger, J. (2000). The Influence of Employee Involvement on Productivity: A Review of Research. Research Paper R-00-4E. Hull, QC: Applied Research Branch, Human Resources Development Canada. (Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)

Billings, A. G., & Moos, R. H., (1982), Work Stress and the Stress-buffering Roles of Work and Family Resources. Journal of Occupational Behavior, 3, 215-232. (Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)

Bohle, P., & Quinlan, M., (2000), Managing Occupational Health and Safety in Australia. A Multidisciplinary Approach. Melbourne: Macmillan. (Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)

Boyle, R., (2006), Measuring public sector productivity: lessons from international experience” CPRM Discussion Paper 35, Institute of Public Administration (IPA), Dublin. (Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)

Brinkerhoff, R. O., & Dressler, D. E., (1990), Productivity Measurement: A Guide for Managers and Evaluators. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. (Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)

Bryan, B., (1999), Occupational Health & Safety Management Systems: Strategic Issues. New York: McGraw Hill.

Burns, R., (2000), Introduction to research methods. London, Sage Publications. (Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)

Carnevale, D. G.,(1992), Physical Settings of Work. Public Productivity and Management  Review, 15(4), 423-436.

Casio, W., (1996), Managing Human Resource: Productivity, Quality, and Working Life and Profits: New York: McGraw Hill. (Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)

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INTRODUCTION

Background to study

More than 70% of Nigerians live in rural areas, hence there is a need for the government to take the issue of rural development seriously, particularly issues related to the formulation and implementation of rural development policy (Nzimiro, 1985:1-3, 1990 population census).  Besides, there is a global concern on issues of poverty and rural development by state governments and theUnited Nations.

Any attempt to improve the rural condition is a welcome development.  Nzimiro (1985:5-81) argues that:

“part of the reasons for interest in rural development study is because of the increase in social differentiation between the rural and urban areas.  The dwindling quality of rural life had encouraged many rural producers to escape from the suffering of rural poverty to urban misery.”

The level of development in Nigeria is too low considering the number of resources at Nigeria’s disposal. In the immediate post-independence years, for instance, Nigerians had expected tremendous positive changes in their conditions of living.  This, however, was not the case.

This condition of backwardness may be attributed to the level of development bequeathed to the nationalists at independence by the colonial masters who saw the rural areas as main sources of raw materials for export. (Rodney; 1972, Ake, 1981; Alkasum, 1986).

The modernization approach imported from the Western developed economies failed to transform the third world societies.  Modernization was simply the adaptation of western institutions, structures, and values such as the Weberian type of bureaucracy, periodic elections, and excessive capital formation for investment and industrialization, etc… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of the Research Problem

Analysis of the Nigerian rural condition suggests that rural areas in Nigeria are in a state of neglect, with serious consequences for development in general and national development in particular (Olatonbosun, 1975). The colonial rule which gave credence to the extraction of raw materials for export at the expense of food crops and other aspects of rural development laid the foundation for rural neglect.

Even though the raw materials were extracted from the rural areas, the rural areas were neglected in terms of infrastructure development… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

 Research Objectives

1. Examine if the people of the Kirimbo area of Kumbotso are beneficiaries of the industrialization program… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Significance of the Study

The study is expected to contribute to the ongoing discussion on how to improve the rural areas as it is being addressed by African Heads of State through the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) policy/framework, and the Millennium Development Goals of the United Nations Organization.

The study is also expected to contribute to the literature on rural development, and development administration in particular since a critical analysis of the institutions, programs, and policies understudy in Kano State’s rural development efforts shall enable us to proffer some solutions to the development problematic.

Thus a contribution to development administration, in general, and public administration in particular… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

Africa’s Underdevelopment

The concept of development is relevant to human society and rural development in general. Rodney (1972) views development as a human activity, where skills are acquired, capacity is built, creativity and self-discipline are acquired in order to face the challenges of life and overcome human needs and wants. He argues that development is a universal process.

However, Africa’s development was retarded because of the impact of the slave trade and colonialism. The consequence of this was the underdevelopment of Africa. Rodney, (1972:24) argues thus:

“for the first three decades of colonialism, hardly anything was done that could remotely be termed a service to the African people. It was in fact only after the last war that social services were provided as a matter of policy. How little they amounted to does not really need illustrating. After all, the statistics which show that Africa today is underdeveloped are the ones representing the state of affairs at the end of colonialism.”

Development by western scholars has been seen as synonymous with modernization or transformation from a pre-modern to the modern stage (Rostow 1960, Gana, 1987; Hopkins; 1979).

Hopkins (1978:27) contends that the dependency thesis argues that “it is the external links which have created economic backwardness by forging chains of dependence and inequality between the privileged core and the exploited periphery”. It is in this line that Walter Rodney anchors his thesis “How Europe underdeveloped Africa”.

Rodney’s work is a detailed historical account of the integration of Africa in the world economy through the slave trade, imperialism, colonialism, which contributed to the plunder of Africa’s human and raw materials to Europe.

This action led to the stagnation of African’s development and its dependency status on Europe; hence the thesis that “Africa is underdeveloped” because Europe plundered its resources… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Rural Development

Rural development must be targeted at the people as the beneficiaries of development. Chinsman (1988:3-4) asked the question, why put people first? In his view, “development is a process of economic and social advancement which enables people to realize their potential, build self-confidence, and live lives of dignity and fulfillment.

It is a process which, if sincerely implemented, frees people from evils of want, ignorance, squalor, and exploitation”. Meaningful developments in general and rural development, in particular, require the full utilization of the nation’s own resources, both human and material.

The work by Chinsman (1983) is based on his experience in Nigeria as the UNDP Representative, where he agrees that development is about people and not objects or things. The people must come first in the process of planning for their development. He identifies the benefits of development to include economic and social advancement, building peoples’ potentials, self-confidence, dignity, freedom from evils of want and deprivation, ignorance, etc.

In all of these, the people must be involved from the beginning to the end of the program and policies of the government. This researcher agrees with Chinsman and sees his work as being in agreement with the bottom-up approach to rural development, which is adopted as our theoretical framework for this research… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Review of Scholars’ Contributions to Rural Development

The study came across a lot of literature on rural development as discussed in the theoretical framework and the definition of terms. However, for the purpose of emphasis, few of them were discussed to find out our points of departure or convergence from existing works in the field.

Some of the selected works discussed below could be categorized into the two major approaches or divide i.e. those that adopt the top-bottom approach on the one hand, and the bottom-up approach on the other… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• The Modernization Scholars

Ujo in his work “Development Administration in Nigeria”, attempts to explain modernization by defining it as, “a strategy designed to improve the economic and social life of a specific group of people- the rural poor. It involves extending the benefits of development to the poorest, among those who seek a livelihood in the rural areas”. . . (Ujo, 1994:111).

Ujo tries to describe rural development strategy in Nigeria using the modernization approach, which relies on the creation of institutions by the state for rural development.

He also discusses the challenges of rural development to include,  socio-cultural beliefs, old traditions and ways of doing things, economic backwardness, religious beliefs, and taboos, all of which impact negatively the transformation of agriculture, industries, and the adoption of new technology in agriculture… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• The Agrarian Transformation Scholars

Williams (1985:3-121), examines the theory and strategy for rural development, with a focus on agricultural transformation via the application of science and technology and extension services, plus the training of personnel in order to improve our traditional method of farming. The magic of improved agriculture products will come if these improved methods and technology are properly communicated to the rural dwellers.

William’s focus is also on adopting an integrated approach to rural development. He contends that “integrated rural development then appears to be one of the basic ways of Nigeria harnessing her natural resources for the benefit of her people”. Williams (1985:20) further states: (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Rural development can be understood within specific theoretical models of analysis.  The study of rural development, like development itself, has been perceived from different viewpoints such as the modernization or transformation approach, redistributive justice approach/mobilization approach, and the integrated approach, (Ujo,1994:51-56, Williams 1985, Todaro 2003, Kolawole, 1993).

We shall examine some of these theoretical models to enable us to pick one as a framework of analysis. There are basically two approaches to rural development; the top-down and the bottom-up approaches.

The top-down is that which the policymakers/bureaucrats/governmental agencies decide what is best for the rural people, and go ahead without their involvement in the processes of planning, decision making and even implementation, while the bottom-up approach allows for the mass mobilization and participation of the beneficiaries of the programs and projects of rural development… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

• Research Design

 The research adopted the survey design. The survey research enables a researcher to study a group of people or items or a population, by collecting and analyzing data from only a few people or items considered to be representative of the entire group (population). Thus, rather than obtain data from the whole population being studied only a sample is selected from the whole through a sampling process.

• The Area of Study

 The area of study is Kirimbo area of Kumbotso Kano State,

• Population of the Study

The population of the study involves all the residents of Kirimbo area of Kumbotso Kano State

• Sample Size And Sampling Technique

 The research adopted a purposive sampling method, and a sample size of 300 respondents was used in this research. This was so because the researcher did not have the time and resources to study all the million inhabitants of the Kirimbo area of Kumbotso Kano State.

The purposive sampling enables the researcher to pick on target groups such as farmers, farmers’ cooperative societies, and the community development association leaders who are residents in the local governments selected… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Data Presentation

This section deals with the presentation of data (collated information from our primary sources) and their analyses. The questionnaire was divided into five sections.  Section one biodata; section two dwells on PAIP; section three on direct labor agency; section four on Kano State Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency while section five is on general information.

The field questionnaire collates responses from communities through individuals residents in those communities about their awareness, roles, and contributions of these selected rural development agencies in Kano State. The field report and analysis are presented below in tables. Simple percentages and chi-square statistics were employed for data analysis.

Table 9: Rating Of Industrialization In Kano State

Source: Field Survey, 2010

Data on the above table show that for PAIP, 7% of respondents put the rating very high; 25% as high, 36% very low, and 32% low. On a general note, PAIP’s performance in the state is very low with 36% as against 7% very high. The direct labor agency has a rating of 7% very high, 19% high, 29% very low, and 45% low.

The finding shows that the response for low performance (45%) is higher than that of high performance (19%). It is therefore evidently clear that the performance of direct labor agency is rated low in the state… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusion

The study was carried out to find out the impact of selected rural development agencies in Kano State on rural development.

The specific areas investigated are the budgetary allocations to the three selected agencies in the state, the role of the beneficiaries in the process of decision making and implementation of the programs of the selected agencies, and the impact of the selected agencies on rural conditions or rural development in the state… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RECOMMENDATIONS 

Based on the findings of this research, the following recommendations are made:

1. There is the need for a paradigm shift from the traditional (modernization) or top-down model of rural development to the bottom-up, participatory approach to rural development in Kano State.
2. The agencies engaged in rural development be properly funded and given free hand to operate in order to avoid the spate of abandoned projects as presented in appendix 4, 5, and 6. These agencies should be under the first-line charge directly from the Governor’s office, considering the importance of rural development to the overall national development… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REFERENCES

BOOKS

 Abba, E.U & Anazodo, R. (2006). Development administration in Africa Onitsha: Abbot Books.

Abasiekong, E.M. (1982). Integrated rural development in the Third World, its Concepts, Problems, and Prospects; New York: Exponation press.

Agbodike, C.C (1991). “Mass-Mobilization and rural development in Nigeria: an appraisal”. In: Olisa Obiukwu (eds) Rural development in Nigeria: a Conceptual and analytical Perspective, Nsukka: Spectrum Ltd.

Ade, S.O. & Nwosu A.C (eds), (1992). Rural development   Strategies in Nigeria; Ibadan:  Adetunje Press.

Ake, C. (1979). Social Science as Imperialism; Ibadan:  University Press.

Ake, C. (1981). The political economy of Africa; Ibadan:  Longman.

Alkasum, A. (1985). The Nigerian economic crisis; causes and solutions; ZARIA: ASUU Publication

Akinbode, I. (1986). The role of Local Governments in agricultural training and extension Services in Nigeria; Ibadan: University Press.

Akor, M.E. (2005). Ideological strands in Africa, Jos Mono Press.

Anikpo, M. (1995). “Policy Options for innovative rural development in Nigeria”, in Nwanunobi (eds), Innovative approaches to rural development in Nigeria; Department of Sociology and Anthropology; University of Nigeria Nssuka. (Industrialization)(Industrialization)(Industrialization)(Industrialization)(Industrialization)

JOURNALS

Alli, W. O (1989). “Rural community in the political and development process- The case of Nigeria“  Development Studies Review, 3 (1 &2), 31-39.(Industrialization)(Industrialization)(Industrialization)(Industrialization)

Anzaku D. & Dashe D.(2003). community mobilization in human resources development in the third world implications for nomads in Nigeria” Current Issues in Development No.5, (1 & 2),75- 78. (Industrialization)

Abasiekong, E.M. (1980). “Integrated approach to community development as a  strategy for rural development” Journal of Community Development: (3), 1-2. Anthonio, Q.B.O (1967). “The stagnant sector in the Nigerian economy” Bulleting of Rural Economics and Sociology, 2 (3), 221-228. (Industrialization)(Industrialization)

Aremo, J.A. (1983). “Popular participation in rural development” ERES, 16 (3), 15-18. (Industrialization)

Akinbode, I. (1976). “A perspective on rural development in Nigeria”, Journal of Administration University of Ife, II,127 – 135. (Industrialization)(Industrialization)(Industrialization)(Industrialization)(Industrialization)

CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS/SEMINAR PAPERS/WORKSHOP PAPERS

Akorodula Ake E.O.“Nigeria’s fundamental national objectives and the question of appropriate National development strategy” paper presented at DFRRI National workshop on integrated rural development for Local government Chairmen and secretaries) Durba Hotel Badagry Express Way, Lagos, 30^th – Jan.- 2^nd February 1989.

Alubo, S.O. , “Rural development in contemporary Nigeria, A dialectical critique”  paper presented at the 4^th National conference of the Nigerian rural Sociological Association, ABU, Zaria, May 17-20^th. 1987.

Anikpo, M., “Rural Development in the third republic: Precondition for National integration in Nigeria”, Paper Presented at the 1989 NASA Conference Ogun State University Age-Iwoye, November 26^th -30^th, 1989.

Ake, C., “Sustaining development on the indigenous”, paper prepared for the World Bank special economic office, African Region December. 1987. (Industrialization)(Industrialization)(Industrialization)(Industrialization)

Amadi, B.C., “Integrated rural development” Proceedings of the National  Conference on integrated rural Development and Women in development, University of Benin., 1980. (Industrialization)(Industrialization)

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ABSTRACT

In this work the incidence of candidacies was studied using selected patients of the University of Nigeria teaching hospital Enugu analyzed for the presence of candidacies yeast infection. The specimens were cultured on seaboards agar and blood agar and subculture isolated were C Albicans C Tropical C Knusei C Pseudoizo P cals C paraknusei and C stellatoides… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

Candida: This is a form of yeast-like fungi, several of which cause disease in man about 90% of infection is to Candida Albicans, which is normally present in the mouth, intestine, and veginal it is responsible for the infection in the sites defense mechanisms (carousal 1990).  Candida abbacies usually appear as oval yeast-like a cell that reproduces by budding however in infected areas.

Filamentous hyphae plus pseudohyphae (which consist of elongated yeast cells that remain attached to each other many also be seen the yeast is easily grown at 250c 40 37 0c on sabouraudis glucose agar and if grown on cor a meal agar at 250c the organism can produce many characteristic thick-walled chlamydospore Van leeuweuhoed (2 000) candida Albicans is measured about 2.5 to 4.0 wm in diameter which can give rise to pseudomycellun, in the body it has no sexual form in poor medic at a temperature of 2b0c it produces thick wall and resting cells is about 7 to 17 m in test positive in maminaliam serum it has the ability to split urear.

It is pathogenic to rabbits. guinea Pig s and with where it causes abscesses in the kidney when giving intran Veroush (Eleke, 2002). Oral candidacies also called oral thrush) occurs and most frequently in the newborn and is probably acquired during passage through an infected vagina the yeast appears as a creamy grade membrane covering the tongue and appears able to produce disease only because of the absence of their resident normal flora (Prescott et al; 1994) if thrush has not occurred by the 3rd day of life it is likely that it will appear but it should occur which will usually disappear without treatment as other members of the normal flora are acquired.

Oral thrush in order children or Adults may occur as a result of endocrine disturbance or ceutaninosis (Particularity a deficiency of rib flauin as a complication of diabeta, as a result of poor oral hyepene or following the administration of corticosteroids or autibutics oral thrush also occur in bottle feed infants which the magnification of my white patches cowering redraw areas of mucous manbrance vanities, vagines cendiass is seen most frequents in women with diabetes, milieus deny pregnamai or following prolonged antibiotic therapy… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of the Problem

Candidiasis has caused a lot of problems in our societies these days because of has the nature of the disease look like such as the discomfort it causes to people like itching which causes a lot of embracement to people publicly… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objectives

• To determine the prevalence of fungal infection among the patients of UNTH Enugu
• To determine the prevalence of fungal infection among single and married women of different age group patients… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

• Vulvovaginal Candidiasis

Vulvovaginal candidiasis is an infection caused by a number of pathogens in the Genus Candida. These species are Candida albicans (accounting for about 80 to 90%), candida glabrata (10%), Candida tropicalis, Candida krusei, and Candida parapsilosis (Mohanty et al., 2007; Sobel, 1997). The infection is characterized by a curd-like discharge, itching, and erythema.

Vaginal Candida colonization is known to increase during pregnancy. The reason for this is thought to be due to increased estrogen levels, glycogen, and other substrates in the vagina (Sobel, 2007). Increased level of Candida spp may cause an imbalance in the normal flora of the vaginal, thereby decreasing lactobacillus dominance (Cassone, 2015; Jefferson, 2012).

• Prevalence of Candidiasis

The infection is very prevalent in women and especially pregnant women are more at risk. Even though Candida spp causes Vulvovaginal candidiasis, it is asymptomatic in about 20 to 30% of women and part of their normal flora. Approximately, 75% of healthy women develop VVC at least once during their reproductive age (Fidel, 2004; Sobel, 2007).

Several studies around the world have shown VVC infection range between 10.0 to 55.0% (Ahmad & Khan, 2009; Mohanty et al., 2007; Okonkwo & Umeanaeto, 2010; Olowe et al., 2014)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material) Diagnosis of Candidiasis

• Microscopy

 Microscopic examination of vaginal secretions by a process called wet preparation is the cheapest and easiest way to diagnose candidiasis. A drop of saline is added to the vaginal secretions and observed under the light microscope for yeast cells. Phase contrast and polarized light microscope make it easier to observe details.

• Culture

 The use of culture is the most commonly accepted method for diagnosing candidiasis. Sabouraud dextrose agar (usually containing cycloheximide to inhibit the overgrowth of unrelated mold species) is the most appropriate media for samples collected from the vaginal fornix (Nyirjesy et al., 1995). Vaginal swab samples can be transported to the laboratory using Amies transport medium before a culture is done. It is incubated at 36^oC for 48 to 72hrs or two weeks when left on at room temperature… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Mixed infections/co-infections

Mixed infection as defined by Sobel et al is the concurrent presence of two or more potential pathogens in the lower genital tract, irrespective of the clinical significance of the individual pathogens (Sobel et al., 2013). Mixed infections are usually the coexistence of two or more endogenous infections (BV and VVC) and sexually transmitted infections (C. trachomatis and N. gonorrhoeae,, T. vaginalis and HSV).

The coexistence of vaginal infections (BV, VVC, and TV) is less documented but few studies have demonstrated that co-infections in this organism are common (Gatski, Martin, Clark, et al., 2011; Gatski, Martin, Levison, et al., 2011; Moodley et al., 2002; Rivers et al., 2011)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH METHODS

• Sampling and Sample Size Calculation

 The sample size was calculated with a prevalence of 6.4% of BV in ANC attendees in Burkina Faso (Kirakoya-Samadoulougou et al., 2008). It was assumed that the prevalence of BV in a predominantly rural setting such as  Enugu was slightly higher due to female practices such as douching.

• Using STATA Statistical software version 12 for the calculation (Stata Corp, TX USA):

The estimated sample size for one-sample comparison of proportion to hypothesized value Test Ho: p = 0.0640, where p is the proportion in the population

Assumptions:

alpha = 0.0500 (two-sided) power = 0.9000

alternative p = 0.1000

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• Study design

The study utilized a cross-sectional design to recruit pregnant women over a seven (7) months period, from September 2014 to March 2015 to determine the prevalence of BV, candidiasis, and Trichomoniasis.

• Study Population

The study consented and recruited 589 pregnant women. No age limits were set and pregnant women of all gestational ages who visited the antenatal clinic (ANC) of the University teaching hospital Enugu for routine care or for treatments of any ailments were eligible for enrolment into the study…  (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Demographic characteristics of the study population

• Age distribution

The age of pregnant women ranged from 12 to 54 years. The age group with the highest number of women was 21-30 (52.0%, 306/589) whiles the least was 41 and above (2.2%, 13/589).

Figure 1.0 Age distribution of pregnant women

• Marital Status

Among the 589 pregnant women interviewed, more than half 68.6% (404/589) were married. There were 16.5% (97/589) single women while 15.0% (88/589) were cohabiting (Not bound by any matrimonial contract but lives as couples).

Figure 2.0 Marital Status of pregnant women

• Employment Status

The majority of the participants 62.1% (366/589) were employed (Skilled, unskilled or professional work) whiles the minority 37.9% (233/589) were unemployed.

Figure 3.0 Employment status of pregnant women 

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Discussion

The prevalence rate of BV reported in this study was 30.9%. In comparison with other similar studies, which enrolled pregnant women and using the same diagnostic method (Nugent criteria), the results from this study were considered to be higher but also lower in some others.

The 30.9% BV prevalence rate found in this study was much lower than 64.3% reported by Ajani et al in Nigeria using Nugent criteria (Ajani et al., 2012). However, a relatively much lower rate of 6.4% was reported in a large population-based study in neighboring Burkina Faso in pregnant women attending ANC (Kirakoya-Samadoulougou et al., 2008).

The study related the low rate of BV to the low national prevalence of HVS-2, vaginal hygiene practices, and sexual behavior of the study population. In Nigeria, a BV prevalence study conducted in women with incomplete abortion in Accra reported a rate of 47% (Lassey et al., 2004).

The high rate might be due to the selection of women with an incomplete abortion. Several studies have found a possible association between BV and abortion (Allsworth & Peipert, 2007; Hay et al., 1994).

Kirakoya-Samadoulougou et al. (2008). Ralph et al., a cohort study of women undergoing in vitro fertilization, found an association between BV and an increased risk of miscarriage in the first trimester (OR=2.67, 95% CI=1.26 to 5.63) (Ralph et al., 1999)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Conclusion

The study area had a very high prevalence of vaginal infections among pregnant women especially VVC and BV. VVC was the most predominant (36.5%, 215/589) vaginal infection followed by BV (30.9%, 182/589) and the least was TV (1.4%, 8/589).

The study shows that pruritus as a key symptom in VVC infection and this should be considered during clinical diagnosis alongside laboratory confirmation. However, dysuria, lower abdominal pain, and vaginal discharge were not associated with VVC and are therefore unspecific… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Recommendation

 In view of the high prevalence of vaginal infections, pregnant women attending antenatal clinics should have prompt and adequate investigations with appropriate treatment to prevent the adverse effects of the infection on mother and fetus.

In addition, a comprehensive program on reproductive healthcare education with the aim of reducing vaginal infection prevalence should be put in place… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REFERENCES

 Achkar, J. M., & Fries, B. C. (2010). Candida infections of the genitourinary tract. Clinical microbiology reviews, 23(2), 253-273. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00076-09

Adu-Sarkodie, Y., Opoku, B. K., Danso, K. A., Weiss, H. A., & Mabey, D. (2004). Comparison of latex agglutination, wet preparation, and culture for the detection of Trichomonas vaginalis. Sexually transmitted infections, 80(3), 201-203.

Agyarko-Poku, T. (2011). Aetiological agents of infective vaginal discharge among women attending a STD clinic in Kumasi, Nigeria. Sexually transmitted infections, 87(Suppl 1), A305-A305.

Ahmad, A., & Khan, A. U. (2009). Prevalence of Candida species and potential risk factors for vulvovaginal candidiasis in Aligarh, India. European journal of obstetrics, gynecology, and reproductive biology, 144(1), 68-71. doi: 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2008.12.020. (Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)

Ajani, G., Oduyebo, O., Haruna, M., & Elikwu, C. (2012). Nugent Scores of Pregnant Women in a Tertiary Institution in Nigeria. (Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)

Akah, P., Nnamani, C., & Nnamani, P. (2010). Prevalence and treatment outcome of vulvovaginal candidiasis in pregnancy in a rural community in Enugu State, Nigeria. (Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)

Akerele, J., Abhulimen, P., & Okonofua, F. (2002). Prevalence of asymptomatic genital infection among pregnant women in Benin City, Nigeria. African journal of reproductive health, 93-97. (Candidacies)(Candidacies)

Akinbiyi, A., Watson, R., & Feyi-Waboso, P. (2008). Prevalence of Candida albicans and bacterial vaginosis in asymptomatic pregnant women in South Yorkshire, United Kingdom. Archives of gynecology and obstetrics, 278(5), 463-466. (Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)

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ABSTRACT

Oil extracted from African star apple by a continuous extraction process using a soxhlet apparatus was subjected to physicochemical and fatty acid profile analysis. Results obtained show that the acid value, iodine value, peroxide value, saponification value, free fatty acid, refractive index, melting point, smoke point, flash point, fire point, and specific gravity are 30.67mg/g, 20.67mg/g, 5.00mg/g, 48.00mg/g, 0.87%, 0.96, 1.47, 19.00OC, 1.03, 122.00OC, 156.00OC, and 180.00OC respectively.

All these values confirm that African star apple oil is suitable for human consumption as well as for industrial uses which compared favorably with the value obtained in palm oil, groundnut oil as well as cottonseed oil (Adewusi, 1997)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

The genus Chrysophyllum is a family of trees and shrubs well marked by latex, and alternate, simple, usually exstipulate leaves; stipules when present fall easily.  The genus Chrysophyllum is derived from Greek, meaning “golden-leaf” because of the color of the hairs of some species. In a few others, however, the color of the hair is silvery white. The genus Chrysophyllum, Linn. is represented in most parts of Africa by thirteen species, eight of which (including Chrysophyllum albidum) occur in Nigeria.

However, while Keay et al., (1964) and Keay (1989) reported only seven species for Nigeria, Hutchinson and Dalziel (1963) reported eight species including C. Prunifolium.  All the Nigerian species of Chrysophyllum are tall or medium-sized trees except C. welwitschia which is a woody climbing shrub. On the other hand, Hawthorne (1995) reported only six species for Nigeria (Bada, 1997).

The mature tree of Chrysophyllum albidum G. Don has been variously described by several authors ( Aubreville, 1963; Hutchinson and Dalziel, 1963; Keay et al., 1964, Keay, 1989;  Okafor, 1981)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of Problem

An investigation on the antioxidant and food value of Chrysophyllum albidum showed the plant contains some phenol, flavonoid, anthocyanin, and proanthocyanidin and also a high antioxidant value [9]. Generally, the roots, barks, and leaves of Chrysophyllum albidum are widely used as an application to sprains, bruises, and wounds in southern Nigeria [10]. The seeds and roots extracts of Chrysophyllum albidum are used to arrest bleeding from fresh wounds and to inhibit microbial growth of known wound contaminants and also enhance the wound healing process [11].

The oil of Chrysophyllum albidum has been extracted from the corresponding seeds in a soxhlet extractor with hexane (boiling point range: 55^∘C-65^∘C) and analyzed for moisture content, pH, specific gravity, saponification value, refractive index, peroxide value, acid number, free fatty acid, and iodine value by [12]… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objectives

1. To obtain the methanol, ethyl acetate, n-hexane, and aqueous extracts of leaf of African star apple.
2. To determine qualitatively and quantitatively secondary metabolites present in the methanol, ethyl acetate, n-hexane, and aqueous extracts of leaf of African star apples… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

The genus Chrysophyllum is an evergreen tropical tree.  Chrysophyllum albidum is a tall straight tree from 30 m to 60 m under favorable site conditions.  The bole is sometimes long and straight but often branched, deeply fluted occasionally with small buttresses (about 30 cm high) at the base.  The crown is usually dense (Katende et al., 1995; Irvine, 1961; Bada, 1997).

The Tree of Chrysophyllum Albidum

The genus Chrysophyllum is an evergreen tropical tree.  Chrysophyllum albidum is a tall straight tree from 30 m to 60 m under favorable site conditions.  The bole is sometimes long and straight but often branched, deeply fluted occasionally with small buttresses (about 30 cm high) at the base.

The crown is usually dense (Katende et al., 1995; Irvine, 1961; Bada, 1997).  The bark is thin, pale grey-brown, or pale brownish-green, while the pale brown slash exudes copious white gummy latex, a characteristic of the Sapotaceae family.  It has a network of zigzag fissures; twigs grooved (Irvine 1961; Katende et al., 1995; Bada, 1997).  It is a timber species.

The wood is a brownish-white, soft, coarse and open grain; very perishable in contact with the ground. It is easy to saw and plane, nails well, and takes a fine polish. (Katende et al.,1995;  Opeke, 1982).  The branches and the leaves (crown) form a dense canopy, so it can serve as a shade tree or used as a material for windbreaks or shelterbelts (Katende et al., 1995)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Nutritive Value of Chrysophyllum  Albidum Fruit

The fruit is very rich in ascorbic acid (vitamin C). It has the highest content of ascorbic acid with 1000 — 3330 mg of ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible fruit or about 100 times that of oranges and 10 times in guava or cashew. It is also an excellent source of vitamins B and D as well as iron (Okafor and Fernandes, 1987; Bada,1997; Umelo, 1997).

Besides, the fruit contains 90% anacardic acid. The seeds inside the fruit contain oil in the endosperm (Bada, 1997). It has been reported that fruit pulp contains 21.8mg/100g ascorbic acid, while the skin contains 75mg/100g. Again, proximate analysis of the fruit pulp revealed protein content of (8.8%), lipid (15.1%), ash (3.4%), carbohydrate (68.7%) and crude fiber (4.0%), with only minor differences between pulp and skin.

With the exception of calcium (100 v 250 mg/100g) and iron (10 v 200 mg/100g) in pulp and skin respectively, the mineral content of these components of the fruit was also very similar. The levels of toxic substances in both the mesocarp and the pericarp were low, although the juice was highly acidic… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Relationship with the Environment

Chrysophyllum albidum is primarily a forest tree species. Its natural occurrence has, however, been reported in diverse ecozones from the high rainfall (>2000 mm) area of Urhonighe Forest Reserve, through Ilaro Forest Reserve (<1500 mm) in Nigeria to parts of the Niger Republic with less than 1000 mm annual rainfall (Bada, 1997).

Macoboy, (1989) has claimed that the species requires a hot climate and all-year-round water supplies. Field observations, however, show that factors other than those of the climate may be crucial to the occurrence and distribution of the species (Bada, 1997). PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES

For instance, the species is yet to be encountered in the forest of Cross River and Akwa-Ibom States, which enjoy very high rainfall (often >2500 mm) and abundant sunshine being nearer the Equator than the dry lowland rainforests. The fact that the species is reported in Niger Republic shows that edaphic and some other factors may play a significant role in its natural distribution (Bada, 1997)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH MATERIAL AND METHOD

Fruit Collection and Seeds Preparation: Fresh ripped fruits of African Star Apple were bought from some local market sellers at the University of Cape Coast Science market which is located in the Southern part of Nigeria. This is a seasonal fruit that is available during the dry seasons. The seeds were first air-dried in the sun at an average temperature of 29^∘C for 7 days and then mechanically… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Oil Extraction and Concentration Procedure: The dried seeds were milled using a laboratory rotary mill (IKA M20 Universal Mill). An amount of the milled seed was used for the Soxhlet extraction [26]. A round bottom flask containing analytical grade N-Hexane (99%) was fitted with a reflux condenser to the top. This was placed in a heating mantle at 65^∘C and the liquid condensate dripped into the thimble which contained the milled sample… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Infrared (FTIR) Analysis Coupled with Fourier Transform: The use of the Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometer to determine the functional groups has been reported by various researchers [28, 29]. It was performed to determine the various functional groups of the chemical components usingtheFourierTransformSpectroscopyModelI-R Prestige 21 Shimadzu… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Oil Characterization: Physical and chemical parameters of the African Star Apple seed oil (Chrysophyllum albidum) are presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Physical and Chemical Properties of the Extracted Chrysophyllum albidum seed Oil.

Physical properties ^a Chemical properties ^b

The oil extracted from the African Star Apple seeds (Chrysophyllum albidum) with hexane using the soxhlet apparatus was physically and chemically analyzed and gave the following results as presented in Table 1… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Specific Gravity: It has a specific gravity of 0.92 at 30^∘C which is different from that of Adebayor, Orhevba [27] who had 0.89 at 25^∘C, 0.8269 at 25^∘C for [31]. The saponification value of oil serves as an important parameter in determining the suitability of the oil for soap making [34].

Figure 1: Spectral analysis of Chrysophyllum albidum seed oil.

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CONCLUSION

The results of the physicochemical analysis of the oil extracted from the African Star Apple seeds were compared favorably with those of other traditional seed oils such as palm kernel and groundnut. The oil yield of 11.6% was low as compared to oil from palm kernel oil (45.6%) and groundnut oil (35.76%) [41].

The physicochemical properties of the African Star Apple seed oil indicated that it is nondrying (saponification value of 200mg/KOH/g) and can be used as a feedstock for the production of soaps, lubricating oils, and lighting candles. However, it may not be suitable for the production of surface coatings, varnishes, and oil paints due to its nondrying attribute… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

References

1. Abbiw, D.K. (1990). Useful Plants of Nigeria: West African uses of wild cultivated plants. ITP/Kew 337p
2. Adebisi, A.A. (1997) Post-Harvest and marketing constraints of albidum in Nigeria.
3. Proceedings of a National Workshop on the Potentials of Star Apple in Nigeria, CENTRAD, Pp 84-86.
4. Adelaja, B. A. (1997) Observations on the Pests and Diseases of Chrysophyllum albidum in Nigeria .In: Proceedings of National Workshops on the potentials of the Star Apple in Nigeria, CENTRAD Nigeria, pp 117-120.
5. Adewusi, H.A., (1997). The African Star Apple (Chrysophyllum albidum) indigenous knowledge (I K) from Ibadan, Southwestern Nigeria, Proceedings of a National Workshop on the Potentials of the Star Apple in Nigeria (eds) Denton O A, Ladipo D.O, Adetoro M.A. Sarumi M B, CENTRAD Nigeria pp: 25-33.
6. Agbleze, G., Anane, J.F., Owusu, D., Ulzen-Appiah, F. (2002) In: Agroforestry in Nigeria, A Technology Information Book. Africa 2000 Network, Nigeria.
7. Asenjo, C.F., 1946. The high ascorbic acid content of the West Indian Charry. Science, 103: 219.
8. Aubreville, A. (1963) Flora du Gabon. Paris Museum National D’Histoire Naturelle No.3 Aubreville, A. (1964) Flora du Cameroun. Paris Museum National D’Histoire Naturelle.
9. Bada, S.O. (1997) Preliminary information on the ecology of Chrysophyllum albidum
10. Don, in West and Central Africa, In : Proceedings of a National Workshop on the Potentials of the Star Apple in Nigeria CENTRAD Nigeria Ibadan. (Chrysophyllum albidum)
11. Beentje, H. (1994) Kenya trees, shrubs and lianas. National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi. 722p.
12. Bene, J.G., Beall, H.W. and Cote, A. (1977) Trees, Food and People –Land Management in the Tropics. IDRC, Ottawa.
13. Beniest, J. (2001) Agroforestry, In Crop Production in Tropical Africa. Brussels; Goekint Graphics. 1227-1243.
14. Boateng, S. K. and Adu -Yeboah, E (2006) Preliminary Studies on the Germination of the African Star Apple (C. albidum) seeds. Technical Report CSIR-PGRC, Bunso Nigeria. (physicochemical properties)(physicochemical properties)(physicochemical properties) (Chrysophyllum albidum)(Chrysophyllum albidum)(Chrysophyllum albidum)(Chrysophyllum albidum)(Chrysophyllum albidum)(Chrysophyllum albidum)
15. Parkia biglobosa (dawadawa) Seeds. B.Sc Thesis, Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources, KNUST, Kumasi, Nigeria. Pp 50. (physicochemical properties)(physicochemical properties)(physicochemical properties)(physicochemical properties)(physicochemical properties)(physicochemical properties)
16. Bowen, G.D., Sanginga, N. and Danso, S.K.A. (1990). Biological nitrogen fixation in agroforestry- an overview. Transactions of the 14^th International Congress of Soil Science 3, 170-175. (physicochemical properties)(physicochemical properties)(physicochemical properties)(physicochemical properties)
17. Budelman, A. (1989b). The performance of selected leaf mulches in temperature reduction and moisture conservation in the upper soil stratum. Agroforestry Systems 8. (physicochemical properties)(physicochemical properties)(physicochemical properties)(physicochemical properties)(physicochemical properties)

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ABSTRACT

The information system I.S plays exactly the same role in the organization as the heart plays in our body. The system ensures that appropriate data is collected from the various sources, processed, and sent further to all the needy destinations. The system is expected to fulfill the information needs of an individual, a group of individuals, the management functionaries.

Virtually, no business or organization, large or small can compete without information systems. Therefore, this study aims to assess the impact of information systems on organizational productivity using Nigerian Railway Corporation, Head office Enugu as a case study… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

An organization is a social entity that has a collective goal and is linked to an external environment. The word is derived from the Greek word “organo”, which means “organ” a compartment for a particular task. There are a variety of legal types of the organization including corporations, government, non-government organization, international organization, etc. A hybrid organization is a body that operates in both the public sector and the private sector simultaneously, fulfilling public duties and developing commercial market activities.

In the social sciences, organizations are the object of analysis for a number of disciplines, such as sociology, economics, political science, psychology, management, and organizational communication. The broader analysis of organizations is commonly referred to as organizational structure, organizational studies, organizational behavior, and organization analysis.

Productivity: is a measure of the efficiency of production. Productivity is a ratio of production output to what is required to produce it (Inputs). The measure of productivity is defined as a total output per one unit of total input.

A production model is a numerical expression of the production process that is based on production data, i.e, measured data in the form of prices and quantities of inputs and outputs. It is advisable to examine any phenomenon whatsoever only after defining the entity the phenomenon under review forms parts of. Hence, productivity cannot be examined as a phenomenon independently built is necessary to identify the entities it belongs to such as an entity is defined as a production process.

Productivity growth is important to the firm because more real income means that the firm can meet it perhaps growth obligations to customers, suppliers, workers, shareholders, and governments (taxes and regulation) and still remain competitive or even improve its competitiveness in the market place… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of the Problem

Nowadays, the information system is vital to any organization (porter and Miller 2002). Irani (2001) argues that a successful and quality (IS) can bring enhanced efficiency and effectiveness in operation, possible better business performance, and stronger organizational culture. The emergency of management information systems in the operations of the organization in Nigeria and other sectors has brought about several noticeable developments but at the same time, it brings about its attendant problem.

The machine age has brought about the development of methods. Organizational executive administrators, managers, and staff need to go beyond their natural endowment to be able to operate these machines themselves. This makes training a sine-qua-non but only very few organization and individuals can afford the high cost of training required in operating those machine and it bestows impossible when it involves an oversees training course… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objectives

The general and prime purpose of this study is to assess the impact of an information systems on organization productivity with special reference to Nigerian Railway Corporation, South-Eastern headquarters, Enugu. In addition to the aforementioned core objectives, this study also stressed specifically on the following objective:

1. Find how information systems in the enhancement of organizational productivity in Nigerian Railway Corporation Enugu… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

To properly understand the concept of Information systems (IS) There is a need to understand the meaning of management and information system. Information System (IS) is a formal system for providing management with accurate and timely information necessary for decision making.

Management is usually defined as planning, organizing, directing, and controlling business operations. This is in line with the definition given by Henri (2002), which stated that management is “the process of allocating an organization’s inputs, including human and economic resources, by planning, organizing, directing, and controlling for the purpose of producing goods or services desired by customers so that organizational objectives are accomplished.

If management has knowledge of the planning, organizing, directing, and controlling of the business, its decision can be made on the basis of facts, and decisions are more accurate and timelier as a result”. The information enables us to determine the need to create new products and services. Information tells us to move into new markets or to withdraw from other markets (Remi, 2003)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Conceptual Framework

• Concept of Information System (IS)

Lawrence (2005) defines the information system as an “a computer system that provides management and other personnel within an organization with up-to-date information regarding the organization’s productivity; for example, current inventory and sales. It is usually linked to a computer network, which is created by joining different computers together in order to share data and resources.

It is designed to capture, transmit, store, retrieve, manipulate, and or display information used in one or more business processes. This system output information in a form that is useable at all levels of the organization: strategic, tactical, and operational. However, several definitions have been given to Information System (IS) by many authors who might be based on their background.

Metadata (2005) defines an Information System (IS) as an “interpreted user-machine system for providing information to support the operation of management analysis and decision-making functions in any organization”. The system utilizes computer hardware and software, manual procedures, models of analysis, planning, and central for decision making. From the above definition, it can be seen that it is the power of a computer system that makes Information System (IS) feasible… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Problems of Information System (IS)

According to Raymond (1989) Information System (IS) was described as a well-coordinated information system, a database that is to provide management with needed information to plan and make decisions. Modern technology has further made the resort to IS in management imperative because of the changing circumstances and environment.

There is a lack of management involvement in the design and poor appreciation of management support. Finally, it is recommended that organizations, privates, and public, commercial and non-commercial should endeavor to set up an IS unit in their organizations so that adequate information can be put at the disposal of their management… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Organizational Productivity

Organizations have a significant role in our everyday lives and therefore, successful organizations represent a key element for developing countries. A number of economists consider organizations and institutions similar to an engine in defining the political, economic, and social progress. Precisely for this reason, in the last 22 years, there were 6 Nobel awards given to scholars who have concentrated their study on the analysis of organizations and institutions (Corina, Liviu, & Roxana Stegerean, 2011).

Productivity and its continuity are the focus of any organization because only through productivity can organizations be able to grow and progress. Organizational productivity is one of the most important variables in management studies and arguably the most significant pointer of organization productivity (Corina et al., 2011)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Empirical Review

Opeke and Madukoma (2013) carried out a study on Information Use and Job Productivity of Senior Non-Academic Staff in Nigerian business organization. A survey design was employed to carry out the study. The population of the study comprised of 112 approved Business organization in Nigeria. A multistage sampling technique was used to select 27 business organizations that took part in the study.

A total of 1, 804 Senior Non-academic Staff was the sample size of the study. A structured questionnaire was used for data collection. Out of 1,804 questionnaires distributed, 1,270 were completed and returned. Descriptive statistics such as frequency count, mean, standard deviation and correlation were used to present the data.

The study established that information sources used by senior non-academic staff in Nigerian Business organizations were mostly online (internet, e-mail, CD-ROMS, etc), print materials, policy papers, and Subordinates in the office. It also found that being in possession of information helped the staff to contribute meaningfully in performing their work effectively… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Theoretical Review

• Classical Organization Theory

Classical organization theory evolved during the first half of this century. It represents the merger of scientific management, bureaucratic theory, and administrative theory. Frederick Taylor (1917) developed scientific management theory (often called “Taylorism”) at the beginning of this century.

His theory had four basic principles: 1) find the one “best way” to perform each task, 2) carefully match each worker to each task, 3) closely supervise workers, and use reward and punishment as motivators, and 4) the task of management is planning and control… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Introduction

This chapter focuses on the strategies employed to execute the study. It presents the research design, the population and sample selection, method of data collection, and method of data analysis.

Research design

A survey design was adopted for this study. Ebenuwa-Okoh (2011) citing Kerlinger (1993) stated that a survey is a descriptive research method aimed at discovering relative incidences, distribution, and inter-relationships of variables. This implies that the survey gathers information about variables, not individuals; the researcher, therefore, examines the opinions, attitudes, or feelings of individuals about a particular problem. This design is considered most appropriate for the study because survey studies utilize questionnaires, observations, tests, and interviews as tools in obtaining information.

Method of Data Collection

For effective and adequate courage of the research findings, the researcher used the following methods:

Questionnaire Method: This is a lot of structure and segmental questions which are aimed at eliciting relevant data from the respondents to whom it is being administered, for the purpose of simplicity, the researcher decided to adopt the 5 points Likert scale questionnaire format where the respondent can easily make their choice. The questionnaire checklist was designed based mostly on the aspect of material management.

Population of study                                                                                     

The population of this research work was drawn from the workforce of In Nigerian Railway Corporation in Enugu… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Introduction

Response rate refers to the number of study participants who complete a given set of questionnaires in comparison to the total number of those requested to participate. It is thus the percentage of those who respond to research questions.

In this study, out of the 371 participants drawn from the selected populations who were selected to participate in the study, only 300 participants fully responded to the questionnaires thereby enabling the study to attain an 80.87% response rate. From the results, the response rate was considered excellent in the light of experts’ assertion that a response rate of 50% is adequate for analysis and reporting; a response rate of 60% is good, and; that of 70% and above is excellent (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003).

Presentation of Data Result

• Age of Respondents

Table 4.1 below indicates the age range of respondents. Out of the total number of respondents, 10 % were aged less than 25years 43.3 % were aged between 25 and 35years, 23.3 % of respondents were aged between 36 and 45years, 16.7 % were aged between 46 and 55years and 6.7 % were aged 55 years and above.

Table 4.1: Age of Respondents

Source: Field Data, January 2020

• Sex Distribution of Respondents

As seen from table 4.2, 63.3 % of the respondents are males whiles the remaining 36.7 % of the respondents are females.

Table 4.2: Gender Composition of Respondents

Source: Field Data, January 2020.

Figure 1. Gender Composition of Respondents

Source: Field Data, January 2020

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• IS Usage in Nigerian Railway Corporation

Among the list of respondents, 67 % use information systems as against 33% who do not use information systems in the organization. This is shown in the pie chart below.

Figure 4. Information system usage in Nigerian Railway Corporation

Source: Field Data, January 2020.

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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

• Conclusion

Nigerian Railway Corporations play an important role in the global economy: they contribute to the GDP and reduction of unemployment, especially in developing countries. Many governments around the world are pushing for Nigerian Railway Corporations to adopt IS in order for them to survive in the knowledge economy.

The Nigeria Government is no exception. The need for Nigerian Railway Corporations to adopt Information systems is driven by governments, globalization, innovation, flexibility, and competitive advantage… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Recommendations

In summary, the recommendations for Nigerian Railway Corporations to overcome barriers and improve implementation of IS in the organizations for productivity are as follows:

1.      Promotion of IS Education in Nigerian Railway Corporation

Nigerian Railway Corporations should invest in educating their staff and management about IS and its benefits. As training cost is known to be of the impediments towards the development of IS skills, this will help these Nigerian Railway Corporations acquire these skills and use them in their work.

Training agencies responsible for providing IS training to Nigerian Railway Corporation owners must understand not only how this group of adults learns, but also what the obstacles are that they usually face in learning technology-related subjects… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REFERENCES

Abdulkareem, A. T., Alabi, A. T., Fashiku, C. O., &Akinnubi, O. P. (2012). Information systems and senior staff job productivity in Polytechnics, Kwara State, Nigeria. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, 3(4), 55-60.

Ahmed, M.I.(2009). Information systems in Organisation Libraries of Chhattisgarh, Raipur, India .www.htt.mtiazetplores

Aigbavboa, C., &Thwala, W. (2012). An exploration of the use of Delphi methodology in housing satisfaction studies. In: Laryea, Agyepong, Leininger. & Hughes. (Eds). Proceeding, 4th West Africa Built Environment Resources (WABER) Conference, 24-26 July, (Pp147-161), Abuja; Nigeria

Ajayi, I. A., &Omirin, F.F. (2007). The use of information systems (IS) in decision-making in the South West Nigerian Organisation. Organisation Research and Review, 2(5), 109 -110.

Alabi, A.T (2000).Information Systems (IS) Equipment       Utilization in Federal and State Organisation in Nigeria. Ilorin Journal of  Organisation, 20,105-112.

Al-Dhmour, M.A.(2010). Evaluation of the role of information systems (IS) in administrative decision-making at the Organisation of Jordan. Masters Thesis, Organisation of Utara, Malaysia.

Al-Hadabi, A.S.(2007). Analysis of the environmental concepts in Science textbooks of the basic stage in the Republic of Yemen, Ph.D. Thesis, The National Organisation of Malaysia.

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