ABSTRACT

The study found out that the condition of shopping bag littering has gone from bad to worse due to unchecked littering. Besides visual pollution, Plastic shopping bag litter is non-biodegradable and thus accumulates. Its disposal method is a challenge as Plastic shopping bag waste recycling is not economically viable. Plastic shopping bag litter contributes to a blockage of sewers and drainages, poses a threat to biotic species and abiotic components when incinerated, buried, or dumped.

Furthermore, when filled with rainwater, Plastic shopping bag paper bags litter become breeding grounds for mosquitoes, which cause malaria. In landfills, it acts as a habitat for vectors that transmits pathogens like flies and rodents.  There is no immediate alternative that is likely to replace Plastic shopping bags in the near future… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

According to the International Facility Management Association (IFMA), “FM is the practice of coordinating the physical workplace with the people and work of the organization”. It integrates the principles of business administration, architecture and the behavioral and engineering sciences FM covers these two main areas: ‘Space & Infrastructure’ (such as planning, design, workplace, construction, lease, occupancy, maintenance, furniture, and cleaning) and ‘People & Organization’ (such as catering, ICT, HR, accounting, marketing, hospitality).

Sustainability is also an important aspect of FM practice, it deals with conserving and enhancing the community’s resources so that ecological processes on which lives depend are maintained and the total quantity of life now and in the future can be increased. “We do not inherit the earth from our ancestor we borrow it from our children” (Iroquois Nation – Sustainability, Facility Management & IFMA 2012), a facility management professionals must focus on ecologically sustainable development in areas such as waste reduction, recycling, energy and resource management, and other similar strategies.

As the demand for environmentally friendly and high-performance buildings escalates, it is also essential to study some of the practices in our wider community that currently contribute to an unnatural deterioration of the environment at either local or global levels. This project thus seeks to study the impact of polythene and Plastic shopping bags waste on our environment especially as it affects Lagos state… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of Problems

Plastic shopping bag pollution is a problem that has truly ‘gone global’. Fragment of plastics has been carried by planetary-scale ocean currents to the remotest corners of the world, including both Arctic and Antarctic wilderness areas. Action is needed at a range of scales to address the degradation of Earth’s oceans and shorelines by Plastic shopping bag debris (Simon Oakes 2010)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objectives

The aim of this study is to examine the impact of polythene and Plastic shopping bags on the Lagos environment and show the reason why producing biodegradable Plastic shopping bags is the only way to reduce drastically the current huge polythene and Plastic shopping bags waste being generated in Lagos State.

The specific research objectives are as follows:

1. To analyses the impact of waste generated through polythene and Plastic shopping bags in
2. To assess the contribution of recycling and incineration of polythene and plastics bags in the elimination of the current 23% Plastic shopping bag waste being generated in Lagos… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

Conceptual Review

Littering is a condition where waste is strewn or scattered about; resulting in a condition of disorder or untidiness (Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 1997). Accordingly, Plastic shopping bag litter consists of waste Plastic shopping bag carrier bag that has been disposed of improperly, in an inappropriate location by means of throwing the waste Plastic shopping bag onto the ground as opposed to disposing of them properly.

The distinction between dumping and littering is defined by volume, the location of the disposed waste, or the method of waste disposal, (Collins Thesaurus Dictionary, 2002)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

The Origin and Global Spread of Plastic Shopping Bag

Plastic shopping bags were designed and made from a Plastic shopping bag by Swedish engineer Sten Gustaf Thulin in the 1960s . The design was patented worldwide by Celloplast; a well-established company in plastics processing in 1965 (Cherrier,2006). The Company’s patent position gave it a virtual monopoly on plastic shopping bag production, and the company set up manufacturing plants across Europe and in the US.

Other companies saw the attraction of the Plastic shopping bag, too, and the US petrochemicals group Mobil overturned Celloplast’s US patent in 1977… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Theoretical Framework:

This study was be informed by the structural-functional theory of social change, the theory of social disorganization, anomie or strain theory, and learning theory of behaviorism.

• Structural –functional Theory of Social Change

Social change refers to modifications of the way people seek ultimate meaning in life (Gerth, 1953). According to Gerth (1953), these modifications may include, the introduction of new techniques, new ways of making a living, and changes in place of residence, new innovations, ideas, and social values. Many sociologists view social change as a change in the structure of society or alteration of the social structure (Ginsberg, 1958).

Others stress that social change is not only a change in the structure but also in the functioning of society, (Allen, l97l). Social change is also conceptualized as the process of planned or unplanned qualitative or quantitative alterations in social phenomena, (Vago, 1996)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Research Design

Research design is a comprehensive master plan of the research study to be undertaken, giving a general statement of the methods to be used. The function of a research design is to ensure that requisite data in accordance with the problem at hand is collected accurately and economically, (Adams (1985).

Adams (1985) describes research design as an understanding of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a way that combines their relationships with the research to the economy of procedures. Adams (1985) suggests that research design deals with the detailing of procedures that will be adopted to carry out the research study… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Introduction

This study presents the data analysis and interpretation of the results. The analysis was done as per questionnaires that were used to collect data. The study targeted a population of 120 respondents and they all responded giving a response rate of 100% which according to Mugenda Mugenda (1993) a response rate of more than 80% is sufficient enough for the study.

Gender of the respondents

The respondents were asked to show their gender. This was expected to guide the researcher on the conclusions regarding the degree of congruence of responses with the gender characteristics. Figure 4.1 below shows the study finding.

Figure 4.1: Gender Response

The results as in figure 4.1 show that majority of the respondent were female at 55% while the male was 45%. The results of gender distribution indicate that the female gender is more than men in Apapa. It can be attributed to the number of factors such as environment gender adaptation, gender urbanization, and natural sex ratio theory of 1:5. Generally in any society, if the ratio of men: women remain at 1:1; the society is likely to experience a strain in the co-existence equilibrium… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material) 

Distribution of Age Group

The respondents were asked to disclose their age. The figure below shows the study findings:

Figure 4.2: Plastic shopping bag Usage by Age

The results presented in figure 4.2 show that a large proportion of 46.7% of the respondents was aged between the ages of 21 to 30 years; this was followed by a significant percentage 33.3% that were aged between 31-40 years. 8.3% were aged 41-50 years, 5% were aged 18-20 years 4.2% were aged 61-70 while 2.5% were aged between 51-60 years.

The conclusion drawn from the above table indicates that the majority of the Apapa residents are primarily young people who should be given adequate considerations in finding solutions to Plastic shopping bag littering… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusion

The process of urbanization in Nigeria has provided the impetus for social disorganization or anomie. The result is that the collective purposes of the society are less fully realized than they could be under a different, better-organized system. When there is no provision of a shared set of priorities among these competing obligations, the individual’s behavior has become unpredictable in the urban setup.

The anomy existing in the urban set up has been exploited by the capitalist to sell their merchandize uncontrollably. Capitalism is an open-ended, internally contradictory process and it produces manifest and latent functions that are difficult to predict and control. Capitalism has dynamics that are driving social changes that are full of new risks called “manufactured risks” that are incalculable in origin and indeterminate in their consequences.

These risks are created by the impact of human knowledge and technology on the natural world… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Recommendation

Because there is no roadmap to these new dangers and risks for capitalism, modernity or urbanization that has resulted in Plastic shopping bag littering impacting on biotic species and abiotic components adversely, individuals, counties, organizations and the government of Nigeria including the international community of states also known as “global risk society” must negotiate risks as they make choices how to live is to be lived… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REFERENCES

Aadland, D. & Caplan, A. (2006), Curbside recycling: waste resource or a waste of resources? Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 25(4) 855-874.

Adams, G.and Schvaneveldt.1985.Understanding Research Methods, Longman Inc.New York. Akullian, A., Karp, K., & Austin, D. (2006). Durbin, Plastic shopping bag externalities and policy in Rhode Island. Brown Policy Review.

Allen Francis R.Social- Cultural Dynamics: An Introduction to Social Change.New York: Macmillan,1971.

Allen, F.B (1990), Social-Cultural Dynamics: An introduction to Social Change MA polity press Amani Mehdi, The Urban Explosion, UNESCO Currier, 1992. (Shopping Bags)

Bahri,D. & Girum, S. (2005). Sustainable Management of Plastic shopping bag Waste: The Case of Lagos, Nigeria. IIIEE Reports: 03, Sweden. Banks, Sam, 2008. Plastic shopping bags: Reducing Their Use Through Regulation and Other Initiatives. Report for Parliament of Canada: Industry, Infrastructure, and Resources Division. (Shopping Bags)

Beychok, Milton R. (January 1987). “A database for dioxin and furan emissions from refuses incinerators”. Atmospheric Environment 21 (1): 29–36. (Shopping Bags)

Bhari Girum: Thesis on Sustainable Management of Waste: Case Study of Lagos, Sept 2005. (Shopping Bags)

Bjerkli, C. L. (2005). The cycle of Plastic shopping bag waste: an analysis of the informal Plastic shopping bag recovery system: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. (Shopping Bags)

Bogdom.R and S.Biken 1992. Qualitative Research for Education. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, USA. (Shopping Bags)

Bohm, Roberts M. Introduction to Criminal Justice. Department of Criminal Justice and Legal Studies University of Central Florida, Orlando,1996. (Shopping Bags)

Borg and Gall.1993. Education Research.An Introduction. Longman, New York. (Shopping Bags)

Carroll, AB. Business and Society: Ethics and Stakeholder Management, South-Western: Cincinnati, Ohio, 1992. Chambers English Dictionary 2000. (Shopping Bags)

Chandran, (2004). Research Methodology. World Scientific Ltd. London Changsha Norbu Consultancy, (2009). Study on Poly Bags and Strategies to Reduce Their Use. Prepared for the Royal Society for Protection of Nature. Bhutan. (Shopping Bags)

Cherrier, H. (2006). Consumer identity and moral obligations in non-plastic shopping bag consumption: a dialectical perspective, International Journal of Consumer Studies Vol 30 No. 5 pg 515– 523. (Shopping Bags)

Clapp J, Swanston L, Williams J (2008). Single-use Plastic shopping bag shopping bags: Issues for the region of Waterloo to consider. University of Waterloo, Faculty of Environmental Studies, Waterloo, USA. Vol.1, pp. 2-13 (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

(Get the Complete Chapter One To Five Project Material)

ABSTRACT

This project work is aimed at examination of jollof rice served in hotels for pathogenic organisms and to find out possible pathogenic organisms in the food. Samples were collected from the hotels and were brought to the laboratory for analysis. The samples were homogenized and serial dilution of the sample was made out using 5ml sterile pipette and test tubes… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

The intention of food safety is to prevent food poisoning (the transmission of disease through food and to maintain the wholesomeness of the food product through all stages of processing until it is finally extern. No one doubts the importance of food in our lives. All active living organisms must have a constant serviced of energy this energy may be supplied by materials a cell or organism has stored internally (e.g our fat or carbohydrate) or it may come from an external source in the environment food (Nutrition) supplies two major components of life, ENERGY and the chemical building blood of life, (Bor).

Energy is required for the various enzymatic reaction that requires an input of energy for the reaction, the catalyze for example the movement of the muscles on our legs during a race, in the intestine as we digest our meal, or to draw air into lungs for breathing all require energy.

Food also supplies the structural material required for living organisms to make new macromolecules for the repair of the damaged structure or for new construction such as the manufacturing of offsprings. Apart from its vital function of sustaining life; food is referred to as labors of pathogenic organisms, if not prepared in a tidy and clean environment. This has been recognized as a problem in some restaurants in Enugu, concerned with providing proper food for consumers. Pathogenic organisms exist in two major categories.

INTOXICATIONS –INFECTION: Intoxication is a result of ingesting toxins produced by microbes that have grown on the food prior to it being eaten. Infection is the result of the food serving as a carrier that carries an infection pathogen deep into the juicy recesses of a body where it is able to gain afoot. Generally, food pathogenic organism results from contamination of food and the subsequent growth of food pathogenic organisms.

Food poisoning outbreaks are recognized by the sudden onset of illness with a short period of time among many individuals who has eaten or drunk one or more food (Jollof rice) in common. Single cases are difficult to identify unless in botulism for example there are distinct symptoms. Food pathogenic organisms may be one of the most common causes of actuating illness, yet cases are difficult to identify in Botulision.

For example, food pathogenic organism may be one of the most common causes of acute illness. Yet cases and outbreaks are generally under-recognized and under-requited.   The number of bacteria present: food (jollof rice) may be used to determine whether or not the food (jollof rice) has been handled correctly. Sources, Vehicles, and Reuters of continuations

Some diseases that are spread by bacteria that enter the body in food (jollof rice) can multiply at an amazing rate when they are provided with warmth and moisture, (especially at room temperature) Our food can become an ideal home for then. Clean food (jollof rice) can be contaminated by bacterial from four main sources.

• The people present in the workplace and their clothing.
• Other food that is already contaminated.
• Dirty kitchen or work premises
• Insect and vermin.

Some time, harmful bacteria pass directly from the source of high-risk food, but usually, they rely on other things to transfer them to food. These things are called vehicles. Ihekoronye, A. and Ngoddy P.O (1979)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of Problem

Pathogenic organisms are organisms that are referred to as specific health hazards associated with gas to intestinal distribute resulting from the consumption of food containing toxins. The victim suffering from abdominal pain and diarrheas with more vomiting than diarrheas usually manifest the illness, which when untreated in time result to them does not result to death it had led to unnecessary expenses in seeking medical advice. This has now made me be interested in how we can improve our food hygiene to avoid contamination… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objective

This is to find out possible pathogenic organisms found in food (Jollof rice) sold to Top Rink Hotel and the presidential hotel to examine and identify microorganisms (bacteria) associated with the Jollof rice (food) sample collected from these hotels in Enugu. And to determines the bacteria load growth… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Significance of the Study

The significance of the work is to enable us to improve the hygiene of food (Jollof rice) served and a good knowledge of a safe food handling practice suitable light color protection clothing to be worn and it will also enable us to be aware of the various pathogenic organism and the infection they transmit through food (Jollof rice). As a result of this, the prevention of contamination of food is to be adhered to. This can be achieved by (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

Composition of Rice And Its Requirement

Rice (Oryza sativa) is cultivated in swampy areas in many tropical countries where it is mainly used for humans the composition of rice differs with the variety, nature of the fertilizer applied. About 85 percent of rice consists of milled rice is low (Alverlinoetal, 1970) but when simazine is applied to flooded soil at flowering this increases the percentage of protein in the rice grain yield. The fat content is low and it is removed in the process of milling. The digestibility of the protein is high and the nutritive value depends on its amino acid content which varies Alverlinoetal 1970).

The main protein is oryzenin which is rich in argan but poor in lysine and threonine (Hawrie 1974) the number of fat-soluble vitamins A and D is negligible, but vitamin E content of whole rice is considerable. I lusked rice has a high content of vitamin B, the riboflavin, content is low and vitamin C is practically absent rice does not contain sufficient requirement for human consumption hence various ingredient is introduced into the various preparation of rice to supplement and increase the Nutritional requirement (Eorry G. Robet Skimmer (1982).

Jollof rice is one of the major dish sold in restaurant fast food joints, it is of high demand because the ingredient used in it is preparation make up a substantial portion of the human diet.

Source of Contamination

There are various sources of food contamination. The various ways are

• Main landing (servers)

This can get the food contaminated through the serving of the food i.e a case where one’s land that are not properly washed comes constant with the food that is been served to the buyer which are the consume. The presence of microorganisms in the atmosphere. Naturally, microorganisms are known everywhere they are ubiquitous when food is been exposed they tend to infest the food as a result of this the food is been contaminated. (Trickett)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Pathogenic Bacteria Organism that is Responsible for Contamination of Jollof Rice

In the preparation of Jollof, rice ingredient is used and this ingredient has certain bacteria microorganisms responsible for their spoilage as a result of this, these microorganisms will now also be responsible or included in the spoilage contamination of Jollof rice, for instance, meet which is one of the imprudent used in the preparation of Jollof rice, is been contaminated by the following microorganisms… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Some Micro Organism Responsible for Jollof Rice Spoilage

There are so many microorganisms involved in the spoilage or contamination of Jollof rice, in this case only a few of them that are common in the spoilage will be discussed. And they are as follows.

• Salmonella

This app which is salmonella is been considered as the most principal organisms that cause the salmonella infection salmonella apparently obtained considerable alteration number on food without casing considerable alteration in the organoleptic properties of food (taste, odor, etc.).

The source of the organism includes man, which play an important role because man can excrete the organism without the symptom of illness for weeks. Humans also play an important role in cross-contamination of cooked food, other sources include the poultry, their eggs, and rodents… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Prevention of Food Pathogenic Organism

According to (Thomas) food pathogenic organism can be prevented if the following precognitions are adhered to:

• High standard of Personal Hygiene… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Samples Collection

Samples of rice (Jollof rice) were collected from the top rank hotel and presidential hotel in Enugu town. The food is collected into a sterile cellophane bag and then taken to the laboratory for analysis.

Media Used and Sterilization Method

The media used include nutrient agar (oxide) and macconkey agar (oxide).

Direction

5.6 Grammies of Nutrient agar (NA) were weighed into 200ml of distilled water in a conical flask. This was then mixed gently by shaking and they cocked with cotton wool and foil paper it was also sterilized in the autoclave at 1210c for 15 minutes… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Findings and Discussion

Table 1 shows mean values for total colony count for bacterial isolates. Four bacteria were isolated: Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coil, and Klebsiella pneumonia. B. cereus, which is mainly associated with food poisoning because of its ability to produce toxins, was present in 37.5% of samples.

Table 1: Mean values for total colony count for bacterial isolates.

Results are given as mean value ± standard deviation.

SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

With reference to the result obtained the number of organisms was found to be more than 30cfu in 100 ml of serial deletion Jollof rice when the number is more than 30cfu, it indicates pathogenicity the study confirms the presence of pathogenic bacteria in apparently Jollof rice. Rhodes et al reported that some microorganism which grows well in food may produce a toxin which when ingested will case poison in the system… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Conclusion

The food to be sold to consumers should be properly prepared with safe and portable water such water should be treated and inspected by medical officers who will certify such water for use. Also, the food to be sold to consumers should be prepared in a clean environment devoid of refuse dust striking sink, etc., the food should be sold in clean and well-covered dishes washed trays in addition to this the handler should be very careful the way they handle food to be the customers… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Recommendation

The microorganism count of retail food could be very alarming if not properly checked to ensure no further proliferation of the organisms present in the various food. Thus to reduce the organism count in food the water used for the preparation, the environment, and the utensil used should be relatively clean and inspected. If the microbial activities of the hotels in Enugu metropolis of the controlled in the preparation of food then the effects and ailments can be minimized and the disease like typhoid cholera diarrhea and fever can be eliminated… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REFERENCE

Alverlino, P,O Miller, and D. Vergara (1970) Rice: Cultivation and Processing John Wiley and sons inc. Canada Pp 132- 133.

Bor.     S. Luh (1972): Rice, Production and Utilization: Avi, Publishing Company Inc. west port, Connecticut Pg 5859.

Corryg, Robert T. & skinner F. (1982) Isolation and Identification Methods

of food poisoning organism: academic press Inc (London) Ltd 24/48 Oval Road London  NW1 Pg 25-30.

Grist D (1958) Rice, 5th Longman Group Ltd. Longman House, Burnt Mill, Harlow Essex, Cm 2021 E England Pg 450-452.

Ihekononye A.I Ngoddy P.O (1979) Integrated food science and technology

for the tropics. Macmillan press Ltd, Houndmills, Basingstoke Hampshire RG 212 x5 and London. Pg. 253-257.

Lawrie             B. (1974): Rice in the Tropics Longman Group Ltd Longman House, Burnt mill, Harlow Essex Cm 202JE, England Pg 38-43.

Lery J.J.R.C and H.H Black burn (1973). Introductory microbiology by Wiley and sons Inc New York London 2nd edition Pp 260-264.

Mottram V.H (1991). Human Nutrition 2nd Ed. Edward Arnold Publisher Ltd 25 Hill street London, W1 x 84 ll pg 220-221. (Jollof Rice)

Nicholas John (1998): Managing food Hygiene Macmillan education Hound mills, Basingstoke, Harts P.g. 1-3. (Jollof Rice)

Rhodes A and Fletcher DL (1966) Principles of Industrial Microbiology Programs Oxford PP 142 –148. (Jollof Rice)

Thomas C.G (1990) Simple Hygiene Practices: Prentice Hall Inc Pg 42 –48. (Jollof Rice)

Tickett Jull (1992) Food Hygienic for Food Handlers: Macmillan press Ltd. houndmill Basing stoke Hampshire RG 12x 5 London Pg 30.38. (Jollof Rice)

(Get the Complete Chapter One To Five Project Material)

ABSTRACT

This project is an attempt to examine the role of a financial institution in agricultural development in Nigeria with particular reference to Nigeria’s agricultural and cooperative bank Enugu. And to suggest ways by which they can be of better use to the nations. The project also made a desperate attempt to get a view of some farmers.  Chapter one consists of the general introduction of the research topic, the statement of problems, the purpose of the research, and the methodology…  (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

Background

Agricultural is one of the most important sectors of our country’s economy. Enugu state is no exception. Enugu state is characterized by low farm incomes, primitive farming techniques which lower the level of production, and low level of capacity to satisfy the food and fiber need of the nation.

Infant agriculture is in part-type peasant agriculture which has been mentioned by many writers as caught in a vicious circle of property low income resulting in poor savings and little investment because technology is poor, the output is always low and income yield is low. Generally, agriculture in Nigeria is caught as a low-level equilibrium trap. The nature of technology is used always affects the rate of return; i.e. the rate of return cannot rise because of poor technology in use. This also a result of poor financing, such agriculture has been described as efficient but poor.

In order to alleviate the numerous problems being encountered by farmers and the economic loss suffered by both individual farmers and government in the international and local trade transactions, then government decided to finance most of the agricultural projects limited by individual farmers, co-operatives, and institutions…  (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of the Problem

Many developing countries of the world have very few financial facilities, considering the evolution of the financial market in Asia, Latin America, and Africa countries, it was asserted that new financial facilities are very much needed to extend financial help especially in Nigeria. In supporting this assertion, it was contended that at a certain stage in agricultural development.

Agricultural credit clearly does become a strong force for further improvement, when a man with energy and initiative who lacks only the resources for more and efficient production is enabled by the use of credit to eliminate the block on his path to improvement.

Within the two capital markets (institutional and non-institutional) available to rural producers, the informal sources are the most extensive supplier of credit Nigeria yet these sources have not supplied the amount of credit enough in terms of the requirement by farmers to modernize their farming methods… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objectives

The objectives of the study are to determine the role of a financial institution in agricultural development in Nigeria. This will specifically include

• To examine and evaluate the agricultural create it granted the farmers in recent years… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Significance of the Study

The agricultural sector of the Nigerian economy like any other sector of the economy cannot function without fund. Unlike the other sectors of the economy, the agricultural sector can guarantee repayment of loan borrowed or collected only after a long period of time. This is because of the slow nature of the production process.

However, this has acted as a hindering factor for giving out loans to the agricultural sector by financial institutions. If this continues in its current path, the continuous lack of fund would lead to the eventual collapse of agricultural activities… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

• Theoretical background

There are many problems operating against the development of agriculture in Nigeria. The most serious of these problems is the inadequacy of credit facilities. This has caused a lot of setbacks to the development of this sector of the Nigerian economy. Several banks have been encouraged by the federal government to give out loans to needy farmers to boost agricultural production in the country. The effect of agricultural production in relation to bank credit is a master of great value based on the effect an unhealthy agricultural environment has on a country.

These can be seen from such angles which include; Starvation, poverty, unemployment, poor economic growth, over-dependence on other countries, and many more. According to Uchegwu (1995:10),” in trying to solve this problem and encourage the bank to meet the prescribed credit target, the federal government established by decree no. 20 of 1977, the agricultural credit guarantee scheme fund (ACGSF) managed by the central bank of Nigeria”… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Agricultural Credit Policies

These are policies set up or made by the government at different levels in a bid to increase agricultural output. According to Uchegwu O. (1995), the various governments intensified their effort towards maximizing agricultural production during the first half of 1977. In order to induce banks to increase loans and advances to agriculture, the federal government and central bank established an agricultural credit guarantee scheme fund designed to guarantee loans given by any bank to farmers and cooperate institutions for agricultural purposes… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Features of the Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme

Loans given out order ACGS are done at concessionary interest rates. The guarantee is backed by an authorized fund of a 100 million naira to be subscribed to by the federal government and the central bank of Nigeria in the proportion of 60% and 40% respectively. The fund is under the management of the ACGS. The Fund board works with the central bank as the managing agent for its day-to-day administration. The agricultural purposes of which loans can be guarantee by the fund are:-

• The cultivation and production of cereal crops, tubers, fruits of all kinds, cotton, beans, groundnut, bananas plantain, and pineapples.
• The establishment or management of plantation for the production of rubber, oil palm, cocoa, coffee, tea and similar crops, animal husbandry, pig and cattle rearing, fish farming depending on the magnitude of the loan… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

The Role of Parastatals in the Development of Agriculture in Nigeria

The federal government has also set up various parastatals to aid the development of agriculture in Nigeria by decentralizing their roles and status. Such parastatals include:-

• National Accelerated Food Production Project (NAFPP):

NAFPP was based on the green revolution concepts and experiences of Mexico, India, the Philippines, and Pakistan. It was established in the year 1973.

The project had 3 components namely:

• Research
• Extension
• Agro services

Its main objectives were the acceleration of the production of six major food crops, namely rice, millet, sorghum, maize, meats, and cassava. However, this program failed due to inadequate commitment by some states, inadequate public, and poor infrastructural facilities… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Extension Research and Rural Development Strategies in Aid of Agricultural Development in Nigeria Extension

According to Yomere G.O and Agbonifoh B.A (1999), this is a service that assists the farmers through educational producers in improving their farming techniques thereby increasing their production efficiency income as well as improving their standard of living.

It helps rural farmers solve their problems through the application of scientific knowledge in a voluntary program. The aim of agricultural extension is to teach rural people how to raise their own resources. It encourages progressive growth through local leadership, civic pride, and self-help.

The scope of extension is very broad. It is not a mere matter of giving the farmers knowledge from research and technology to help raise efficiency, but it helps them learn about changes, the reasons for it and the uncertainties inherent in the change… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Introduction

This chapter will focus on the exposition of the methods used in obtaining data and information for the purpose of this study. In this case, primary attention would be paid to the type of information to be collected, the sources of data, and the data collection procedures.

Research Design

The survey method shall be adopted for this study. This method focuses on the framework for controlling data collection. The main objective of the survey method is to ensure the accuracy of information. The use of questionnaires for data collection will be adopted.

Population of the Study

The population of this study includes farmers, which could include larger scale and small-scale farmers, financial institutions that provide credit facilities for the farmers, and the Nigerian Agricultural And Co-Operative bank… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

 RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

 The analysis of data collected from respondents would be dealt with here. A total of 200 questionnaires were administered to 200 farmers comprising large-scale farmers and small scale farmers and small-scale farmers. Of the 200 questionnaires administered, 188 were dully completed and collected, thus representing a 94% return rate while 12 questionnaires were not returned representing 6%.

Characteristics of Respondents

Table 4.1: Distribution of Respondents According To Educational Qualification

 Source: Fieldwork, 2010

Above, shows that 79.2% of the respondents have an elementary qualification which is to no qualification, 19.1% of them possess SSCE while 1.7% of the respondents are NCE/OND/HND holders. In other words, a greater percentage of the farmers has a low educational qualification.

Table 4.2: Distribution of respondents according to the level of operation

Source: fieldwork, 2010

The data above shows that 30.8% of the respondents operate on large scale farming while 69.2% of them operate on small-scale farming… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

SUMMARY OF FINDING, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION

Summary of Findings

In the course of the study, we discovered that over the years there has been a steady decline in banks investment in agriculture especially by our indigenous banks, this is attributed to the risk involved in the trade of agriculture ranging from weather conditions to divergences of funds and hence low recovery rate of finances which affects the banks’ willingness to assist. There was also the discovery that there were no enough loan officers or staff willing to supervise and follow up the farmers to monitor the use of funds for the farm operations.

The inadequacy of financial institutions to cater to the needs of farmers is yet another problem of the agricultural sector; coupled with this is the problem of collateral security demanded by banks. High-interest rates are also another factor that pushes the farmers from even considering a bank loan and so food production remains on the small-scale level. In cases where farmers take the loans they find it difficult to pay back over the years, interest rates have been between 15-30%, which the farmers say is high… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Conclusion

The role of agriculture in the development of the country is an enormous one. Agriculture is not only important for food production and for the production of raw materials of different sectors examples of which are clothing, pharmaceutical, furniture, etc but also serves as foreign exchange earners for the country.

In Nigeria Agriculture has not been able to attain its full objectives and improper funding has been identified as its major problem. It is known that the effective contribution of agricultural lies increasing the hectares under the farmers’ management, will reduce the unit cost of product and the total cost of credit administration and also bring about improved farm management and facilitate the adoption of improved technologies in agriculture. This can be facilitated if the banks could enhance the greater flow of funds to agriculture… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Recommendations

In regard  to the discoveries made above, the following recommendations are put forward:

• Loan increase

It is advisable to increase the number of loans given to farmers to assist them adequately considering the fact that increased input generally yields an increase in output. Banks and other formal credit institutions should de- emphasized the possession of securities and collateral before loans are given. The social rating of individual credit worthiness measured by guarantors should be used to guarantee the repayment of the loan.

• Qualified Staff

This suggestion stresses the need for qualified and skilled staff to assess, follow up, and monitor the farmer and the investment loan is given so as to help him pay back and make some profit.

Bank and other formal credit institution should make it easier for the farmers to get loans without undergoing long processes which are usually involved in securing loans from their institution. Loans supervision should also be carried out to make sure loans are not used for another purpose… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adegeye A.J and Ditton J.S. (1985), Essentials of Agricultural Economics, Impact Publisher, Ibadan.

Anyanwu et al (1977), The Structure of the Nigerian Economy 1960- 1977, Joanee Educational Publications Ltd;

Anyanwu, J.C (1993), Monetary Economics. University of Ibadan Press. Ibadan, Nigeria Ed.3

Coast, W.L.(1987), Money and Monetary Policy in Less Developed Countries, Puganon Press, New York, U.S.A, Ed.1

Essay M.S and Otayide S.O (1974), Intermediate Economics Analysis, Aromolaran Publishing Company Limited, Ibadan. Focus on Agriculture and Rural Development(Executive Summary) http;//www.Nigeria Gov./ Democracy/Chapter 3/Agriculture.Htm.pg 1

Furness Eric. L. (1975), Money and Credit in Developing Africa, Heinnemann Educational Books Limited.

Hornby A.S (1999), Oxford and Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English. (Financial Institution)

Inegbenebo A.U (2002), Introduction to Entrepreneurial Development. (Financial Institution)

Layi Afolabi (1999), Law and Practice in Banking, Heinnemann Educational Books (Nigeria) plc. (Financial Institution)

Lord Hailey (1996), Credit Facilities and Agricultural Development; Chicago University Press. (Financial Institution)

Ogiemuoniyi E.L (1985), Commercial Banks and Agricultural Development in Nigeria, Nigeria Institute of Banking, Longman Group Limited Burnt Mill Harlow Essex, U.K. (Financial Institution)

Okigbo, P.N.C (1981), Nigeria’s Financial System, Structure and Growth, Nigeria Institute of Banking, Longman Group Limited, Burnt Mill Harlow Essex, U.K. (Financial Institution)

Osula E.C.C(1987), Introduction To Research Methodology, Africana FEP Publishers Limited, Onitsha, Nigeria. Ed. 2 (Financial Institution)

Patrick I.Osiegbu (1999), Money, Banking and Economy in Nigeria, Outreach Publications, Calvary College of Theology Port Harcourt, Nigeria. (Financial Institution)

Sanusi. J.O (1996), Financing Agriculture in a depressed Economy. (Financial Institution)

Anyanwu et al(1977) the Structure of the Nigerian Economy, (1960-1997), Joanee Educational Publishers ltd. Onitsha pp 14-17. (Financial Institution)

Layi (1999) law and practice in Banking, Heinemann Educational Books (Nigeria) plc pp 1-4. (Financial Institution)

Patrick i. osiegbu (1999) Money, Banking and Economy in Nigeria Outreach publications, Calvary college of theology, Porthacourt, Nigeria, pp.188-190. (Financial Institution)

Yomoere G.O and Agbonifoh B.A.(1999) Research Methodology in Social Science And Education Centre piece Consultants Nigeria Limited, Benin City, Nigeria pp.98-123. (Financial Institution)

Anyanwu, J.C (1993), Monetary Economics, University Ibadan Press, Ibadan. Nigeria. Ed. 3. (Financial Institution)

Anyanwu et al (1977), The Structure of the Nigeria Economy 1960 – 1977, Joane Educational publications Ltd, Onitsha pp 14-17. (Financial Institution)

Hornby A.S (1999). Oxford and Advanced learners Dictionary of current English. (Financial Institution)(Financial Institution)

Layi Afolabi (1999) Law and Practice in Banking. Heinemann Education Books (Nigeria) Plc pp 1-4. (Financial Institution)(Financial Institution)

(Get the Complete Chapter One To Five Project Material)

ABSTRACT

Employee health and safety is considered to be a major determinant of employee and organizational performance. Today, the matter of work-force health and safety at work is receiving worldwide attention; this is the major reason why most successful organizations take care of his employee health and safety.

However, many organizations often record high rate of industrial accidents, large-scale absenteeism occasioned by ill-health as a result of the neglect of health and safety. This project provides various types of employee health and safety and how it could be implemented for improved organizational performance taken Unilever Nigeria Plc as a case study… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

• Background of the Study

The industrialization has been the engine of growth for most developing countries like Nigeria and because of that many successive governments strive to find ways and means for developing their industrial sector. The influence of an enduring employee’s safety on organizational productivity and loss control in the Nigerian construction industry cannot be overemphasized, especially in the areas of setting minimum safety management standards, safe work procedures, and environmental management standards (Lourandos, 2008).

It is assumed that an organization’s employees safety measures have a direct relationship with employees’ productivity in view of the fact that assigned tasks can only be safely accomplished when the work environment is safe and conducive for the execution of the assigned duties, be it construction, manufacturing or servicing, thus, any phenomenon that affects human production capacity will invariably affect organizational productivity hence improving workers wellbeing offers a company the opportunity of enhancing its performance (Galliker, 2000)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of the Problem

In today’s workplace, whether it is on a plantation in an office, factory, institutions, etc. every worker across the globe is faced with a multitude of health hazards such as dust, gases, noise, vibration, and extreme temperatures.

This invariably results in absenteeism triggered by ill-health. Unfortunately, some employers assume little responsibility for the protection of workers’ health and safety.

It is noteworthy that the right to life is fundamental and must be considered sacrosanct. Yet every year 2.2 million men and women are deprived of that right by occupational accidents and work-related diseases (ILO, 2011)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objectives 

The major objective of this study is to examine The Impact of Industrial Health and Safety Management on Workers Productivity. Other specific objectives of this study are to:

• To determine the different types of health and safety methods essential for organizational improved performance.
• To find out the effect of health and safety management on employee performance… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Introduction

This chapter seeks to review related literature of the study through historical background information of health and safety standards in Nigeria, various literature on health and safety to empirical analyses.

Historical background information on health and safety standards in Nigeria

In Nigeria, the Occupational Health and Safety Act was established under the Factory Offices and Shops 1970 (Act, 328).  The main provisions of the Act are intended to bring it in line with internationally accepted standards on safety, health, and welfare of employees.

The occupational health and safety activities stated under the Act, include, creating safe work and work environment and promoting the safety, health, and welfare of employees in order to ensure effective utilization of human capabilities thereby promoting increased productivity.

Although Nigeria does not have a national policy on Occupational Health and Safety, the Nigeria Labour Act, 2003 (Act 651) has made provision for Occupational Health and Safety. Provisions made under Part XV Section 118 of the Act include placing a responsibility on employers to ensure a safe and healthy working environment and obligation on employees to use safety appliances provided by the employer in compliance with the employers’ instructions.

It is generally known that developing countries like Nigeria lack relevant policies to adequately cater for the health and safety of employees (Quainoo,2001).  The accident rates in manufacturing and construction in developing countries are known to be at levels that are several times higher than in industrialized countries (Clarke, 2005)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

The Concept of Occupational Health Safety (OHS) 

Safety involves more than the typical dictionary definition of “free from the accident”.    The World Health Organization, (1999) defines health as a “state of complete physical, mental, and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”.

Thus health and safety refer to preventing and protecting people from injury and occupational disease in any form due to hazards and risks that may harm, injure, cause an unsafe environment to people or damage equipment, or the facilities put in place at the workplace.

The World Health Organisation, (1999) defines health as a “state of complete physical, mental, and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”.  Thus health and safety refer to preventing and protecting people from injury and occupational disease in any form due to hazards and risks that may harm, injure, cause an unsafe environment to people or damaged equipment, or the facilities put in place at the workplace… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Safety and Productivity in the Organization 

Productivity is generally seen as a measure of the amount of output generated per unit of input. In many countries, public sector productivity has been assumed to be zero in the national accounts. According to Boyle (2006), the output of the government sector has been measured as equal in value to the total value of inputs.

This output one-forth input convention has increasingly come under scrutiny in recent years. The challenge is to devise alternative estimates based on output measurement in a public sector context where collective services are provided and where there is, in most instances, no market transaction in services provided to individuals (Boyle, 2006)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Safety Standards and Health Problems Faced by Employees

In most accidents, managers and supervisors almost instantaneously point fingers at human efforts and unsafe actions as the ultimate cause without probing deeper into the root cause of the accident. Such incidents occur due to multifaceted factors.

Human errors and unsafe actions caused by illiteracy, lack of training, poor supervision, technical flaws relating to design, layout, machine guarding, and arrangement of work (Krishnan, 1999). Very often it is found out that accidents occur in activities ancillary to the main purpose of the organization, and these activities are given less safety focus by the management.

Safety standards are an orderly arrangement of interdependent activities and related procedures that drives on organization health and safety performance.  According to Bryan, (1999), it can be defined as the plan to reduce and eliminate hazards and risk at the workplace… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Empirical Analyses on Occupational Health and Safety 

There is evidence that providing a healthy and safe working environment has the potential to increase labor productivity and in turn increase business profits.

It is also evident that there are certain requirements needed to ensure the success of health and safety intervention and subsequent increase in productivity. Such requirements include a good level of cooperation between the management and employees and the working environment in which employees are engaged to work.

A number of researches have been conducted in the sub-sectors of the manufacturing industry, construction industry, service industry, petroleum and plastics, and electronics. One such study is by Makori (2008) on the influence of occupational health and the safety of manufacturing firms in Kenya… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

• Introduction

This chapter describes the methods and procedures used to collect and analyze data in order to determine the health and safety standards in Nigeria Unilever Nigeria Plc.  Sections of the chapter include the study design, population, sample size and sampling procedures, instrumentation, data collection, and procedures for analysis and presentation.

• Study Design

A study design is a plan that explains the basic structure of the study.  It provides the procedural outline for the conduct of the study (Amedahe, 2004). The study adopted a descriptive survey design to collect data for analysis.

The survey design was consistent with the description by Sarantakos (2004) and Fraenkel and Warren (2002), that surveys are methods of data collection in which information is gathered through oral or written interviews and could be structured, more formal or a combination of the approach.  The authors stressed the need for consistency throughout the exercise to curtail errors… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Population

According to Fraenkel and Warren (2002), population refers to the complete set of individuals (subjects or events) having common characteristics in which the researcher is interested.

For the purpose of this study, the target population comprised of management, supervisors/line managers, and factory operation staff of Nigeria Unilever Nigeria Plc.  Out of a total of 202 eligible staff, 120 selected staff comprising 30 females and 90 males was selected for the study… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Sampling and Sampling Procedures

According to Amedahe (2004), sampling is the process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire population in the study.  A sample consists of a carefully selected unit of the population for a particular study (Sarantakos, 2005).

The general notion held by many researchers is that the larger the sample sizes the lower the risk of sampling errors occurring… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Table 3.1: The sample size of Respondents in the selected area

Source: Survey data 2012        n = 120

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

• Introduction

This chapter presents the views from respondents who were elicited to find out the effects of health and safety standards on productivity in Nigeria Unilever Nigeria Plc.

Primary data were collected through questionnaires to address the objectives of the study which were to: identify health and safety standards in the organization; determine the effect of health and safety on employees‟ productivity; determine employees‟ level of understanding of health and safety policies.

Also to access the attitude of management towards the health and safety of employees and identify the challenges of health and safety standards in the organization.. (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Presentation and Analysis of Preliminary Data

The first part of this chapter is a presentation and analysis of the preliminary data obtained from the study. It involves the background information of the respondents. The variables involved are the gender of respondents, age, educational background, and the number of years they have worked in the organization. Data obtained have been presented in Tables 4.1.1, 4.1.2. 4.1.3. and 4.1.4.

Gender of Respondents

The respondents were asked to indicate their gender by ticking the appropriate column they belonged to. The purpose was to find out the number of males and females who actually participated in the study.

Table 4.1.1 shows that out of the 120 respondents who participated in the study, the majority 90 of the respondents representing 70.8% were males, while the remaining 30 respondents representing 29.2% being females. Naturally, males and females have different attitudes and views toward events at the workplace (Singer, 1996).

 Table 4.1.1 Gender of respondents

Source: Field data, 2012

Age of Respondents

Table 4.1.2 depicts the age distribution of respondents who participated in the study. The purpose was to find out the average age of the employees who are actively involved in the operations within the organization.

A close look at the Table shows that 29 respondents representing 24.2% fall within the age bracket 20-29 years; 49 representing 40.8% fall within the age brackets 30-39 years.

Nineteen respondents representing 15.8% fall within

40-49 years while the remaining 23 representing 19.2% fall within the age brackets 50-59 years. The data shows that the majority of the employees in the organization fall within 30-39 years.

Table 4.1.2 Age of respondents

Source: Field data, 2012

(Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusions

Based on the findings it can be concluded that occupational health and safety practices at Nigeria Unilever Nigeria Plc are not in conformity with what has been described as “best practices”.

This is because; responsibilities of employees and management are not clearly spelled out with regards to health and safety. Employees are not trained in strategies for protection against hazards at the workplace… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Recommendations 

From the findings and conclusions of the study, the following recommendations are made.

Management should be more responsible for the needs and concerns of their employees‟ safety and health by being more sensitive to the problems of the employees.

This can be carried out by the provision of a suggestion box or other avenues for employees to give their suggestions on how safety can be improved… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REFERENCES

Alazab, L., (2003), A healthy and safe workplace. African Newsletter on Occupational Health and Safety.

Amedahe, F. K, (2004), Research Methods Notes for Teaching. Unpublished manuscript. University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast.

Baker, S. P., & Green, S. S. (1991). Injury Prevention in the Workplace. Pp. 86-99 in Work, Health, and Productivity, editors G. M. Green and F. Baker. New York: Oxford University Press.

Bavon, A., (2000), Occupational Health and Safety in Nigeria. An Agenda for reform. African Social Science Review, 1(1), 37-46.

Beach, D., (2000), The management of people at work, 7^th edition. New Jersey: Macmillan publishing company Ltd.

Bélanger, J. (2000). The Influence of Employee Involvement on Productivity: A Review of Research. Research Paper R-00-4E. Hull, QC: Applied Research Branch, Human Resources Development Canada. (Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)

Billings, A. G., & Moos, R. H., (1982), Work Stress and the Stress-buffering Roles of Work and Family Resources. Journal of Occupational Behavior, 3, 215-232. (Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)

Bohle, P., & Quinlan, M., (2000), Managing Occupational Health and Safety in Australia. A Multidisciplinary Approach. Melbourne: Macmillan. (Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)

Boyle, R., (2006), Measuring public sector productivity: lessons from international experience” CPRM Discussion Paper 35, Institute of Public Administration (IPA), Dublin. (Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)

Brinkerhoff, R. O., & Dressler, D. E., (1990), Productivity Measurement: A Guide for Managers and Evaluators. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. (Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)

Bryan, B., (1999), Occupational Health & Safety Management Systems: Strategic Issues. New York: McGraw Hill.

Burns, R., (2000), Introduction to research methods. London, Sage Publications. (Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)

Carnevale, D. G.,(1992), Physical Settings of Work. Public Productivity and Management  Review, 15(4), 423-436.

Casio, W., (1996), Managing Human Resource: Productivity, Quality, and Working Life and Profits: New York: McGraw Hill. (Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)(Industrial Health)

(Get the Complete Chapter One To Five Project Material)

ABSTRACT

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the importance, availability, and utilization of instructional materials by senior secondary agricultural science teachers in Lagos State. Six research questions and four null hypotheses were formulated to guide the researcher in carrying out the study. The descriptive survey research design was used. The population was made up of four hundred and thirty-one Agricultural science teachers in senior secondary schools in the State.

All the members of this population were studied; hence, there was no sampling. The data collection instrument was a structured questionnaire, comprising a checklist and other items that were designed on a 5-point scale. The data collected were analyzed using frequencies, percentages, mean scores, and standard deviation to answer the research questions… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Instructional material is crucial to teaching and learning processes. A dedicated classroom teacher feels satisfied when he realizes the objectives he has set out to achieve for every lesson. In order to achieve this, a trained teacher employs a number of methods, design, and actions, one of which includes the use of instructional material.

Instructional materials are referred to as the resources which both the teachers and students use for the purpose of effective teaching and learning. Okwo (1996) defined instructional materials as those materials that teachers can use in teaching to facilitate the learning of a particular subject or lesson. The list of instructional materials is inexhaustible and their limit is the teacher’s level of resourcefulness, creativity, and imagination.

Rominszowski (1996) listed instructional material to include newspapers, magazines, pictures, textbooks, chalkboards, laboratory equipment, posters, bulletins, journal, radio, television, audiocassettes, tapes, film scripts, and slides. Others are overhead and opaque projector, real objects, and computer. Okebukola (2003) described instructional materials as information multipliers because they are capable of providing learners with opportunities to learn beyond teachers’ capabilities when utilized for instruction.

The utilization of instructional material is the act of using and applying the available instructional material in the actual teaching/learning process. Where resources are supplied for instructional use, teachers are expected to utilize them to support a smooth and meaningful flow of instruction and promote understanding of the content being taught. To facilitate the teaching and learning of Agricultural science in Senior secondary schools, the skillful teacher can select those instructional materials that are relevant to the Agricultural science curriculum… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of the Problem

 Effective transfer of practical skills by the teachers to the students in Agricultural science requires good teaching methods as well as instructional materials. This implies that technological changes have always necessitated the need for the continuous provision of instructional material. Despite all the emphasis on the acquisition of practical skills and basic knowledge by the students for various activities in Agricultural science it still requires the good manipulation of skill-oriented instructional facilities.

Yet, the instructional materials are unavailable, insufficient, and inadequate (Ogwo, 1996). This may have been responsible for the Senior secondary school Agricultural science teachers’ adoption of the theoretical approach in teaching Agricultural science in most urban and rural secondary schools in Lagos State… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objectives

The general purpose of this study was to investigate the improvisation and utilization of instructional materials for teaching Agricultural science by senior secondary teachers in urban/rural schools in Lagos State. Specifically, the study would:

1. Ascertain the various ways instructional materials are being improvised for teaching Senior secondary Agricultural science students… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Significance of the Study

This study is significant because the findings would be of benefit to the Agricultural science teachers, the students, Lagos State Universal Basic Education Board (LSUBE), and the society at large.

The results of this study would immensely motivate Agricultural science teachers’ curiosity towards improvisation and utilization of instructional materials for teaching/learning. The findings of this study could enable teachers to utilize less expensive materials which the students can easily identify in their locality to make their teaching lively… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Scope of the Study

This study was limited to available instructional material for teaching Agricultural science in Upper Senior secondary, their utilization, and how instructional materials were being improvised. Also, the problems and strategies in the utilization and improvisation of instructional materials by teachers of senior secondary Agricultural science in Ikorodu LGA of Lagos State were investigated.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Concept of Instructional Materials

There are various concepts of instructional materials over the years, instructional materials have been changing names. It has been referred to as teaching aids, instructional or educational facilities, learning resources, educational technology, media materials, and curriculum materials.

Instructional materials according to Ogwo and Oranu (2006), can be defined as any device employed by teachers to transmit facts, facilitate skills/knowledge acquisition, and improve on understanding of learners. According to them, instructional materials include entirely what is known as models, objects, drawings, graphs and charts, pictures, films, and specimens. Dike (1988), refers to instructional materials assets of materials that a classroom teacher can use to extend the various experiences of his learners.

Azikiwe (1994), explained that instructional materials are those devices used for the successful and maximal achievement of the objectives of teaching. To her, they have been found to facilitate the quality of instruction when used by teachers. Moore (1994), described instructional materials as devices that are presented in different varieties, they stimulate, motivate, and arrest learner’s interest.

The term resource materials have also been used to refer to instructional materials. Obianwu (1988), defined resource materials as those devices, machines, and resource materials to educational technology that focus on better ways of maximizing educational input and output for the benefit of teachers and learners. Obianwu asserted that resource persons invited to schools to deliver one or two lessons to students are regarded as resource materials… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Theoretical Framework

• Theory of Anchored Instruction

Anchored instruction is a major paradigm for technology-based learning that has been developed by the Cognition and Technology Group of Vanderbilt (CTGV, 1990) under the leadership of John Branford.

While many people have contributed to the theory and research of anchored instruction, Branford is the principal spokesperson and hence the theory is attributed to him. The initial focus of the work was on the development of interactive videodisc tools that encouraged students and teachers to pose and solve complex and realistic problems. The video materials serve as “anchors” (macro-contexts) for all subsequent learning and instructions.

As explained by CTGV (1993), “the design of this anchor was quite different from the design of videos that were typically used in education” The goal of using anchors was to create interesting, realistic contexts that encouraged active construction of knowledge by learners. Anchors were stories rather than lectures and were designed to be explored by the students and teachers… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Cognitive Load Theory

This theory suggests that learning happens best under the condition that is aligned with human cognitive architecture. The structure of human cognitive architecture, while not known precisely, is discernible through the results of experimental research showing that short term memory is limited in numbers of elements it can contain simultaneously. Sweller (1988) built a theory that treats schemas, or combination of elements, as the cognitive structures that make up an individual’s knowledge base.

These structures permit one to perceive, think, and solve problems, rather than a group of rote learned facts. These structures are known as schemas. They are the cognitive structures that make up the knowledge base. Sweller’s theory is best applied in the area of improvisation of materials relating to the instructional design of cognitive complex or technically challenging material. His contention is that since students have difficulty learning sophisticated material, improvisation of such materials, might demystify the sophistication and make it easier for learners to learn using them… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Improvisation of Instructional Material

Improvisation is usually associated with the use of local resources, where and when professionally or commercially produced materials are not available a teacher, devices a substitute. Improvisation of instructional material is the imitation of those teaching aids or resources which the teacher and in fact the entire class utilize for the purpose of making teaching/learning more effective.

Stration (1994) noted that judicious improvisation and the use of improvised materials in the presentation are essential to captivate the audience and improve their perception of what the speaker is saying. Improvisation of instructional materials refers to the invention, construction, collection, modification, production, and substitution of materials for teaching in the absence of professionally made ones, (Mogbo, 1994).

It is a process whereby, teachers and students gather objects from environments and use those objects in either their original or reconstructed form, for teaching/learning. The use of improvised instructional materials in the classroom has the potential to help teachers explain concepts being thought.

Alterhaug (2004), noted that when teachers improvise instructional materials, they generate new processes in which learning, insight and knowledge acquisition from part of a meta-level and make up a platform for further development in a variety of contexts By improvising and utilizing instructional materials, more aspect of the national policy on education will be met (Ogwo, 1996)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Review of Related Empirical Studies

 This section reviews some related studies on the problem under study. Anyakoha and Arkhust (2004) conducted a study titled; Availability and Adequacy of Educational Facilities for the Implementation of the Senior Secondary School Clothing and Textile Curriculum in the Southern Zone of Ghana.

The study was designed to find out which of the essential educational facilities for the implementation of the senior secondary school clothing and textile curriculum are available and also available in enough quantities in the selected schools. The study’s population was the clothing and textile teachers and the senior secondary school clothing and textile students during the 2001/2002 academic year.

The total respondents used were questionnaires, interview guided, and observation checklist. Frequency, percentages, and means were used to answer the research questions and chi-square used to test the hypotheses. The study showed that not all the needed facilities are available. Most of the equipment available was not in sufficient quantities, only 17 out of 43 are available in enough quantities. The teachers were not enough to teach more of the practical curses effectively… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter deals with the procedures that were adopted for the study. It includes the following: the research design, area of the study, population for the study, instrument for data collection, validation of the instrument, reliability of the instrument, method of data collection, and method of data analysis.

Research Design

The study adopted a survey research design. A survey design according to Akuezilo and Agu (2003) is one in which a group of people or items are studied by collecting and analyzing data from only a few people or items considered to be representative of the entire group. This design is appropriate for the present study because it involved collecting information from a sample of senior secondary Agricultural science teachers on their improvisation and utilization of instructional materials.

Population for the Study

The target population for this study consisted of 431 Agricultural science teachers in all the Senior secondary schools in ikorodu Lagos State.

The instrument for Data Collection

The instrument for data collection for this study will be a structured questionnaire which consists of two parts (part one and two). Part one will seek information on the background of the respondents. Part two comprises of six sections (A-F). Section A will seek information on the available instructional materials for teaching Agricultural science, section B on the extent of utilization of available instructional materials section C instructional materials on to be improvised by Agricultural science teachers, section D… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter dealt with the presentation and analysis of data collected for the study. The research questions generated were examined in section A, and the hypotheses formulated were tested in section B. Finally, a detailed discussion of the results of the study was undertaken.

Table 2:

Sample Characteristics of Agricultural science Teachers used in the Study.

Presented in Table 2 are the sample characteristics of the 427 Agricultural science teachers that returned copies of the questionnaire administered on them. The information in table 1 was obtained from the first section of the questionnaire used for the study. The findings from the questionnaire indicated that 102 respondents (23.89%) were teaching in schools located in urban areas. The results further show that 325 (76.11%) of the sample was teaching in rural schools… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusion

Literature has indicated that instructional materials can improve learning outcomes among students (Arkhurst & Anyakoha, 2004; Olaitan, 2008). Instructional material on its own may have little value for learning unless teachers use it in classrooms. The findings of this study have indicated that materials for teaching Agricultural science in Senior secondary were largely unavailable, there was a low extent of teachers’ utilization of available instructional materials by the teachers, and the Agricultural science teachers improvised few of the instructional materials available for teaching… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Recommendations

The following recommendations are made based on the research findings.

• Government and non-governmental organizations should sponsor Agricultural science teachers for training in improvisation of instructional
• Principals, heads of Agricultural science departments, and supervisors from the State Education commission should sensitize Agricultural science teachers on the potentials of using instructional materials for teaching. This would help the teachers become more knowledgeable and improvise instructional materials to improve their teaching… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REFERENCES

Anaekwe, R.E. (2004). Media facilities in Language Classrooms. Paper presented at the National Conference on ICT and enhancement of education in the 21st century held at Federal College of Education Technical (FCE(T), Umunze from 18th –  20th February 2004

Arkhurst, A. P & Anyakoha, E.U. (2004). Availability and Adequacy of educational facilities for the Implementation of the Senior Secondary School Clothing and Textile Curriculum in Southern Zone of Ghana. Retrieved on 17th July 2007 from http://www.moe.edu.sg/it education/edtech/papers/d1.pdf.

Aina, O. (2000). Technical and vocational education in Nigeria. Seminar on proposed blueprint/master plan on TVE in Nigeria held at National Center for Women Development, Garki, Abuja on 30th October to 2nd November 2000.

Alterhaug, D. L. (2004). The future role of instructional technology in agricultural education in North Carolina and Virginia. Journal of Agricultural Education, 44(2), 38-49.

Amoo, S. A (2003) The contemporary trend in instructional material usage. Multidisciplinary journal of research development 10 (7)25-29.

Ani, C. I. (1998). Procurement, management, and maintenance of the school plant: the Nigerian perspective. Awka: Meks Publishers Ltd. (Improvisation)(Improvisation)(Improvisation)(Improvisation)(Improvisation)

Anukam, H.O. (1995). Teaching secondary schools essay writing with African native culture. World council for curriculum and instruction: region II forum. 1, (1) 76-83. (Improvisation)(Improvisation)(Improvisation)

Anyakoha, E. U. (2002). Agricultural science and ICT policy in Africa. Retrieved on 18th November 2007 from http://www.educause.edu/Library Detail Page/666&ID=PUB8001

Ayogu, Z.U (2002). The attitude of J.S.S teachers towards the use of mass media to enhance learning. World council for curriculum and instruction: region II forum. 3, (1) 45-54. (Improvisation)(Improvisation)(Improvisation)

Azikiwe, U. (1994). Facilitating instruction. In Offorma, B. C. (ed.) Curriculum Implementation and instruction. Onitsha: Africana Feb Publications. (Improvisation)(Improvisation)(Improvisation)(Improvisation)

Briggs, S. & Bolanta, E.R (1992). Communicating through the media in classrooms. New York: Macmillan.

Brown. R., Collins, M., & Duighid, J.D. (1989). Instructional media and technologies for learning (7thEd.). Columbus, OH: Prentice-Hall. (Improvisation)(Improvisation)(Improvisation)(Improvisation)

Bulls-lock, P. & Destefaro, N. (2001). Developing problem-solving abilities and visual special ability in technology students. Retrieved on 29th November 2007 from http://www.ericprtal.doc. (Improvisation)(Improvisation)

Charles, C.M. & Senter, G.W. (2002). Elementary classroom management (3rdEd.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

(Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

(Get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

ABSTRACT

In this work the incidence of candidacies was studied using selected patients of the University of Nigeria teaching hospital Enugu analyzed for the presence of candidacies yeast infection. The specimens were cultured on seaboards agar and blood agar and subculture isolated were C Albicans C Tropical C Knusei C Pseudoizo P cals C paraknusei and C stellatoides… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

Candida: This is a form of yeast-like fungi, several of which cause disease in man about 90% of infection is to Candida Albicans, which is normally present in the mouth, intestine, and veginal it is responsible for the infection in the sites defense mechanisms (carousal 1990).  Candida abbacies usually appear as oval yeast-like a cell that reproduces by budding however in infected areas.

Filamentous hyphae plus pseudohyphae (which consist of elongated yeast cells that remain attached to each other many also be seen the yeast is easily grown at 250c 40 37 0c on sabouraudis glucose agar and if grown on cor a meal agar at 250c the organism can produce many characteristic thick-walled chlamydospore Van leeuweuhoed (2 000) candida Albicans is measured about 2.5 to 4.0 wm in diameter which can give rise to pseudomycellun, in the body it has no sexual form in poor medic at a temperature of 2b0c it produces thick wall and resting cells is about 7 to 17 m in test positive in maminaliam serum it has the ability to split urear.

It is pathogenic to rabbits. guinea Pig s and with where it causes abscesses in the kidney when giving intran Veroush (Eleke, 2002). Oral candidacies also called oral thrush) occurs and most frequently in the newborn and is probably acquired during passage through an infected vagina the yeast appears as a creamy grade membrane covering the tongue and appears able to produce disease only because of the absence of their resident normal flora (Prescott et al; 1994) if thrush has not occurred by the 3rd day of life it is likely that it will appear but it should occur which will usually disappear without treatment as other members of the normal flora are acquired.

Oral thrush in order children or Adults may occur as a result of endocrine disturbance or ceutaninosis (Particularity a deficiency of rib flauin as a complication of diabeta, as a result of poor oral hyepene or following the administration of corticosteroids or autibutics oral thrush also occur in bottle feed infants which the magnification of my white patches cowering redraw areas of mucous manbrance vanities, vagines cendiass is seen most frequents in women with diabetes, milieus deny pregnamai or following prolonged antibiotic therapy… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of the Problem

Candidiasis has caused a lot of problems in our societies these days because of has the nature of the disease look like such as the discomfort it causes to people like itching which causes a lot of embracement to people publicly… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objectives

• To determine the prevalence of fungal infection among the patients of UNTH Enugu
• To determine the prevalence of fungal infection among single and married women of different age group patients… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

• Vulvovaginal Candidiasis

Vulvovaginal candidiasis is an infection caused by a number of pathogens in the Genus Candida. These species are Candida albicans (accounting for about 80 to 90%), candida glabrata (10%), Candida tropicalis, Candida krusei, and Candida parapsilosis (Mohanty et al., 2007; Sobel, 1997). The infection is characterized by a curd-like discharge, itching, and erythema.

Vaginal Candida colonization is known to increase during pregnancy. The reason for this is thought to be due to increased estrogen levels, glycogen, and other substrates in the vagina (Sobel, 2007). Increased level of Candida spp may cause an imbalance in the normal flora of the vaginal, thereby decreasing lactobacillus dominance (Cassone, 2015; Jefferson, 2012).

• Prevalence of Candidiasis

The infection is very prevalent in women and especially pregnant women are more at risk. Even though Candida spp causes Vulvovaginal candidiasis, it is asymptomatic in about 20 to 30% of women and part of their normal flora. Approximately, 75% of healthy women develop VVC at least once during their reproductive age (Fidel, 2004; Sobel, 2007).

Several studies around the world have shown VVC infection range between 10.0 to 55.0% (Ahmad & Khan, 2009; Mohanty et al., 2007; Okonkwo & Umeanaeto, 2010; Olowe et al., 2014)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material) Diagnosis of Candidiasis

• Microscopy

 Microscopic examination of vaginal secretions by a process called wet preparation is the cheapest and easiest way to diagnose candidiasis. A drop of saline is added to the vaginal secretions and observed under the light microscope for yeast cells. Phase contrast and polarized light microscope make it easier to observe details.

• Culture

 The use of culture is the most commonly accepted method for diagnosing candidiasis. Sabouraud dextrose agar (usually containing cycloheximide to inhibit the overgrowth of unrelated mold species) is the most appropriate media for samples collected from the vaginal fornix (Nyirjesy et al., 1995). Vaginal swab samples can be transported to the laboratory using Amies transport medium before a culture is done. It is incubated at 36^oC for 48 to 72hrs or two weeks when left on at room temperature… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Mixed infections/co-infections

Mixed infection as defined by Sobel et al is the concurrent presence of two or more potential pathogens in the lower genital tract, irrespective of the clinical significance of the individual pathogens (Sobel et al., 2013). Mixed infections are usually the coexistence of two or more endogenous infections (BV and VVC) and sexually transmitted infections (C. trachomatis and N. gonorrhoeae,, T. vaginalis and HSV).

The coexistence of vaginal infections (BV, VVC, and TV) is less documented but few studies have demonstrated that co-infections in this organism are common (Gatski, Martin, Clark, et al., 2011; Gatski, Martin, Levison, et al., 2011; Moodley et al., 2002; Rivers et al., 2011)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH METHODS

• Sampling and Sample Size Calculation

 The sample size was calculated with a prevalence of 6.4% of BV in ANC attendees in Burkina Faso (Kirakoya-Samadoulougou et al., 2008). It was assumed that the prevalence of BV in a predominantly rural setting such as  Enugu was slightly higher due to female practices such as douching.

• Using STATA Statistical software version 12 for the calculation (Stata Corp, TX USA):

The estimated sample size for one-sample comparison of proportion to hypothesized value Test Ho: p = 0.0640, where p is the proportion in the population

Assumptions:

alpha = 0.0500 (two-sided) power = 0.9000

alternative p = 0.1000

(Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Study design

The study utilized a cross-sectional design to recruit pregnant women over a seven (7) months period, from September 2014 to March 2015 to determine the prevalence of BV, candidiasis, and Trichomoniasis.

• Study Population

The study consented and recruited 589 pregnant women. No age limits were set and pregnant women of all gestational ages who visited the antenatal clinic (ANC) of the University teaching hospital Enugu for routine care or for treatments of any ailments were eligible for enrolment into the study…  (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Demographic characteristics of the study population

• Age distribution

The age of pregnant women ranged from 12 to 54 years. The age group with the highest number of women was 21-30 (52.0%, 306/589) whiles the least was 41 and above (2.2%, 13/589).

Figure 1.0 Age distribution of pregnant women

• Marital Status

Among the 589 pregnant women interviewed, more than half 68.6% (404/589) were married. There were 16.5% (97/589) single women while 15.0% (88/589) were cohabiting (Not bound by any matrimonial contract but lives as couples).

Figure 2.0 Marital Status of pregnant women

• Employment Status

The majority of the participants 62.1% (366/589) were employed (Skilled, unskilled or professional work) whiles the minority 37.9% (233/589) were unemployed.

Figure 3.0 Employment status of pregnant women 

(Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Discussion

The prevalence rate of BV reported in this study was 30.9%. In comparison with other similar studies, which enrolled pregnant women and using the same diagnostic method (Nugent criteria), the results from this study were considered to be higher but also lower in some others.

The 30.9% BV prevalence rate found in this study was much lower than 64.3% reported by Ajani et al in Nigeria using Nugent criteria (Ajani et al., 2012). However, a relatively much lower rate of 6.4% was reported in a large population-based study in neighboring Burkina Faso in pregnant women attending ANC (Kirakoya-Samadoulougou et al., 2008).

The study related the low rate of BV to the low national prevalence of HVS-2, vaginal hygiene practices, and sexual behavior of the study population. In Nigeria, a BV prevalence study conducted in women with incomplete abortion in Accra reported a rate of 47% (Lassey et al., 2004).

The high rate might be due to the selection of women with an incomplete abortion. Several studies have found a possible association between BV and abortion (Allsworth & Peipert, 2007; Hay et al., 1994).

Kirakoya-Samadoulougou et al. (2008). Ralph et al., a cohort study of women undergoing in vitro fertilization, found an association between BV and an increased risk of miscarriage in the first trimester (OR=2.67, 95% CI=1.26 to 5.63) (Ralph et al., 1999)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Conclusion

The study area had a very high prevalence of vaginal infections among pregnant women especially VVC and BV. VVC was the most predominant (36.5%, 215/589) vaginal infection followed by BV (30.9%, 182/589) and the least was TV (1.4%, 8/589).

The study shows that pruritus as a key symptom in VVC infection and this should be considered during clinical diagnosis alongside laboratory confirmation. However, dysuria, lower abdominal pain, and vaginal discharge were not associated with VVC and are therefore unspecific… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Recommendation

 In view of the high prevalence of vaginal infections, pregnant women attending antenatal clinics should have prompt and adequate investigations with appropriate treatment to prevent the adverse effects of the infection on mother and fetus.

In addition, a comprehensive program on reproductive healthcare education with the aim of reducing vaginal infection prevalence should be put in place… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REFERENCES

 Achkar, J. M., & Fries, B. C. (2010). Candida infections of the genitourinary tract. Clinical microbiology reviews, 23(2), 253-273. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00076-09

Adu-Sarkodie, Y., Opoku, B. K., Danso, K. A., Weiss, H. A., & Mabey, D. (2004). Comparison of latex agglutination, wet preparation, and culture for the detection of Trichomonas vaginalis. Sexually transmitted infections, 80(3), 201-203.

Agyarko-Poku, T. (2011). Aetiological agents of infective vaginal discharge among women attending a STD clinic in Kumasi, Nigeria. Sexually transmitted infections, 87(Suppl 1), A305-A305.

Ahmad, A., & Khan, A. U. (2009). Prevalence of Candida species and potential risk factors for vulvovaginal candidiasis in Aligarh, India. European journal of obstetrics, gynecology, and reproductive biology, 144(1), 68-71. doi: 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2008.12.020. (Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)

Ajani, G., Oduyebo, O., Haruna, M., & Elikwu, C. (2012). Nugent Scores of Pregnant Women in a Tertiary Institution in Nigeria. (Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)

Akah, P., Nnamani, C., & Nnamani, P. (2010). Prevalence and treatment outcome of vulvovaginal candidiasis in pregnancy in a rural community in Enugu State, Nigeria. (Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)

Akerele, J., Abhulimen, P., & Okonofua, F. (2002). Prevalence of asymptomatic genital infection among pregnant women in Benin City, Nigeria. African journal of reproductive health, 93-97. (Candidacies)(Candidacies)

Akinbiyi, A., Watson, R., & Feyi-Waboso, P. (2008). Prevalence of Candida albicans and bacterial vaginosis in asymptomatic pregnant women in South Yorkshire, United Kingdom. Archives of gynecology and obstetrics, 278(5), 463-466. (Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)(Candidacies)

(Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

(Get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

 ABSTRACT

The insurgency has come to assume global concern in view of its magnitude and spread. In Nigeria, while history reveals that insurgency is not entirely new as the nation witnessed the Maitasine and Niger Delta insurgencies among others in times past, the wave of violence unleashed by the Boko Haram sect in northern Nigeria has proved unprecedented and has also revealed the extent of the failure of governance in the country, the abysmally poor crisis management tradition by the Nigerian state and its palpable inability to provide security to its citizens.

It has also brought to the fore the necessity on the part of the government to make concerted and intensified efforts to evolve lasting solutions to the intractable crisis in the country. This work is, therefore, an effort to assess the Federal Government of Nigeria’s response to the Boko Haram insurgency… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

It is a historical fact that human society from time immemorial has been characterized by violence in various forms. In traditional societies, violence existed in the form of raids, tribal wars, slavery, and insurgency among others. These were conducted as individuals and groups sought to enhance their power, status, and influence over others or to register their grievances. The insurgency has existed throughout history but ebbed and flowed in strategic significance. Today the world has entered another period when the insurgency is common and strategically significant.

Insurgency is a strategy used by groups that cannot realize their political aims through conventional means of seizure of power. Insurgency is characterized by continued, asymmetric violence, ambiguity, the use of complex terrain (jungles, mountains, and urban areas), psychological warfare, and political mobilization which are designed to protect the insurgents and eventually affect the balance of power in their favor.

Insurgents may attempt to capture the power and replace the existing government (revolutionary insurgency) or they may have more limited objectives such as separation, independence, or alteration of a specific policy. They avoid battle places where they are weakest and focus on those areas where they can operate on more equal footing. They try to postpone decisive action, avoid defeat, sustain themselves, expand their support, and hope that, over time, the power balance changes in their favor (Metz, 2004: 2)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of the Research Problem  

Violence is endemic in human society. However, the state exists to manage violence and thereby maintain order in society. The essence of the state thus lies in its ability to facilitate human interaction. Whether one is speaking of interpersonal relations or group dynamics, it is hardly contestable that the state plays a critical role… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objectives

The under-listed will be the objectives of this study:

1. To identify and discuss the major issues leading to the outbreak of the Boko Haram insurgency in Northern Nigeria.
2. To examine the Nigerian state‘s response to the Boko Haram insurgency with a view to determining its efficacy and suitability… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Literature Review

The previous chapter gave an introduction to the study and stated the research problem and objectives. This chapter comprises a review of the literature and theoretical framework. It is presented in a thematic manner with a focus on states’ responses to an insurgency within their borders. It examines some African countries‘ response to insurgency like Mali, Sudan, Sierra- Leone, Algeria, and finally Nigerian state‘s response to insurgency beginning with the Maitasine crisis of the 1980s, the Niger Delta insurgency and then the Boko Haram insurgency.

• Insurgency

An insurgency is simply an armed revolution against the established political order. Insurgencies are internal affairs and the insurgents are self-sustaining. They usually do not require assistance from foreign powers (Gen, 1976). Although insurgencies are civil wars, the situation becomes less clear-cut when outside powers intervene in some manner.

Often such intervention is only in the form of supplying arms aid to one side or the other or providing professional revolutionaries (like the Cuban revolutionary Ernesto Che Guevara in Bolivia) who can organize and discipline what might otherwise be a haphazard affair easily crushed by the government in power. When intervention draws the attention of an opposing power, an insurgency can quickly be cast as a major power confrontation (Gen, 1976)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Political Infrastructure  

Although the military aspect of the struggle may ebb and flow, the source of insurgent strength; a covert political infrastructure remains constant. This infrastructure, the bitter fruit resulting from the perceived political and economic inequities sown much earlier, is the most important ingredient in the insurgent recipe for success (Summers, 1981).

The political infrastructure performs at least six major functions vital to the survival, growth, and eventual success of the insurgency: (1) intelligence gathering and transmission; (2) provision of supplies and financial resources; (3) recruitment; (4) political expansion and penetration; (5) sabotage, terrorism, and intimidation; and (6) establishment of a shadow government (Summers, 1981)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Theoretical Framework

The postulations in this dissertation shall be founded upon the weak state theory. This approach is presented by Holsti (1993), Ake (1967), Buzan (undated), and Collins (2007). Deducing from Barry Buzan (undated), states comprise of three things: The institutional expression of the state (the bureaucracy), the idea of the state (the nation), and the physical base of the state (territory).

He asserted that weak states are those states where the idea and the bureaucracy are lacking leaving us with an ungoverned space whose territorial integrity is nonetheless enforced by international norms enshrined in the United Nations Charter.

The theory operates from the perspective of the rulers of the weak states. By analyzing actions in the context of the weak state, we see the context under which decisions are made and provide policy implications that affect the context and mitigate the costs of these contexts.

In weaker states, the nature of government and its relationship to other actors means that the survival of the regime becomes practically indistinguishable from the survival of the state…. (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

The Evolution of Insurgency in Nigeria 

• History of Insurgency in Nigeria  

There have been insurgent movements that characterized Nigeria‘s socio-political history. While there were several uprisings in times past the Niger Delta insurgency of the 1960s is a case in point.

The neglect, marginalization, and underdevelopment that generated activism and fomented unrest in the Niger Delta began during the colonial administration. Indeed, the recent events defined by oil politics constitute merely the tipping point in a conflict dating back to the colonial era. Thus, conflicts in the Delta can be categorized as pre- and post-oil conflicts, with different strands of engagement characterizing the post-oil conflicts… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Military Task Forces and Counter-Insurgency in Nigeria

The police which is the primary institution responsible for internal security in Nigeria has been overwhelmed by the rising wave of insurgency largely because they lack requisite training and expertise in counter-insurgency operations (Francis et al. 2011)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

ORGANOGRAM OF NIGERIAN COUNTER INSURGENCY ARCHITECTURE

• Modus Operandi of the Boko Haram Sect

The activities of the Boko Haram sect in northern Nigeria have been different when compared with other groups. The sect operates in a similar way as the Somali Al- Shabaab in the Maghreb region of the Sahel and Al-Qaeda (Opukri and Etekpe, 2013).  Attacks of this nature are usually swift, tempestuous, and enhanced by guerilla firepower. They usually target those they view as infidels or opponents of Sharia code that they supposedly seek to achieve. The Boko Haram has applied tactics and the common noes include the following:

1. Bombing: This relies on the use of Improvised Explosive Devices (EIDs). This is the most prevalent strategy adopted by the sect. Typically the EIDs are easy to manufacture, they are smaller and hard to detect but contain very destructive capabilities. It has been pointed out by Opukri and Etekpe (2013) that in 2011 alone the sect carried out forty (40) bombings in northern Nigeria… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Figure 3.1: Locations of Boko Haram’s attacks and suicide bombings in Nigeria

Source: Onuoha, 2014 p.172

Since mid-2010 the sect‘s modus operandi has changed and they have become unpredictable. Old methods such as the targeted killing of the traditional ward and village heads, security officials, prominent politicians, and opposing ulama have continued unabated… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Sites

This study was carried out in five (5) northern states. These, as well as the towns visited, are itemized in Table 3.1 below.

Table 3.1: Research Sites

Source: Author‘s Compilation

These states, as well as the towns visited, were chosen mainly because the spate of terrorist attacks by the Boko Haram sect took place in these areas.

Sample and Sampling Technique

A sample can be defined as a subset of a population that is selected to meet specific objectives (Essan and Okafor in Olayiwola, 2007). Gay (1980) describes sampling as the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the individuals represent the larger group from which they were selected… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Presentation and Analysis of Data

This section presents the opinions of the generality of Nigerians as sampled from questionnaires and structured interviews.

Fig. 5.1 Sex of Respondents

The information presented above shows a wide gap between male and female respondents. This may be explained by the nature of the topic which is sensitive and capable of instilling fear and suspicion, hence the females may not be bold enough to speak out. It may further be explained by the fact that the places visited have more males in the public sphere than females…  (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Discussion

Though Uwazie et al (1999) described the Maitasine riots as the most militant and widespread religious protest against the secular and religious establishment in Nigeria since independence, this description now befits the Boko Haram insurgency for more than the Maitasine uprisings of the 1980s.

Government approach to religious uprisings in times past can be viewed in the context of long or short term responses. The long term response is largely preventive (Uwazie et al, 1999). This is in so far as the responses come by way of specific and deliberate government policies aimed at establishing an enduring atmosphere of harmony and accord within the polity.

State policies can be steam lined into four perspectives i.e the ecumenical, the political/diplomatic, the constitutional and the security engineering perspectives (Uwazie et al, 1999)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Ignoring Early Warning Signs

It is a historical fact that religion plays a central and domineering role in Nigerian society (Usman, 1987). This has manifested as a potent variable in the socio-political development of Nigeria since the pre-independence era. In fact, a discussion of socio-political events in Nigeria would be incomplete without a discussion of religion… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

• Conclusion

The resurgence and escalation of the Boko Haram insurgency since early 2010 caught the Nigerian state unawares. It initially believed the violence would fizzle out.

However, sustained attacks ushered in more sober responses. Since 2012, it has tried to address the challenge on multiple tracks but especially by increasing the defense budget from a 100 billion naira in 2010 to 927 billions of naira in 2011 and 968 billions of naira in 2012, 2013 and over I trillion 2014. Much of these increases were to combat Boko Haram… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Recommendations

The following recommendations are therefore put forward as strategies to effectively deal with the Boko Haram insurgency.

1. Enhanced knowledge of the recruitment dynamics that feed and sustain the group can lead to a more proactive counter-terrorism framework for the Nigerian state… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REFERENCES

Abdulkadir M (2013): Interview on the Nigerian State‘s Handling of the Boko Haram Crisis, held on 16, July, at the News Room of the Headquarters of the Nigerian Television Authority (NTA), Area 11, Garki, Abuja.

Abdulkadir, M (2013):  ―Duty Tour Of Chief of Defence Staff to Maiduguri‖ NTA News at 9, 12 July. Abimbola J.O and Adesote SA (2012): ―Domestic Terrorism and Boko Haram Insurgency in Nigeria, Journal of Arts and Contemporary Society; Vol.4 Cenresin Publications September.

Abimbola J.O and Adesote SA (2012): ―Domestic Terrorism and Boko Haram Insurgency in Nigeria,‖ Journal of Arts and Contemporary Society; Vol.4 Cenresin Publications September.

Abimbola, A (2010): ―The Boko Haram Uprising and Islamic Revivalism in Nigeria‖ in Africa Spectrum, German Institute of Global and Area Studies (GIGA), Institute of African Affairs in co-operation with the Dag Hammarskjold Foundation Uppsala and Hamburg University Press

Abubakar, A. (2009), ―Nigeria struggles to curb rise in child beggars‖, The Telegraph, 18

Abubakar, M (2009): ―Why the Fundamentalists Struck‖ The Guardian, August, 2. (Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)

Abubakar, S (2011): ―Borno Imbroglio: The Truth Behind the Lies‖, Daily Trust, July 26. (Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)

Abugu, F.O (2009): ―Boko Haram: Poverty, Not Islamists on the March‖, The Guardian, August 8. (Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)

Adejo, P.Y. (2005) ―Crime and Cross-Border Movement of Weapons: The Case of Nigeria‖ in A. Ayissi and I, Sall (eds), Combating the Proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons in West Africa: Handbook for the Training of Armed and Security Forces, Geneva: United Nations Institute of Disarmament Research (UNIDIR).

Adejuyigbe, O (1989) ―Identification and characteristics of Borderlands in Africa, In Asiwaju, AI and Adeniyi, PO (eds) (1989) Borderlands in Africa A multidisciplinary and Comparative Focus on Nigeria and West Africa, Lagos, University of Lagos Press. (Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)

Adeniyi, O (2011): Power, Politics and Death: A Front Row Account of Nigeria under Late President Yar‟Adua; Kachifo Press Limited, Lagos. (Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)(Counter Insurgency)

(Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

(Get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

ABSTRACT

The increased complexity of the society and high level of competition in the construction industry has made it imperative for contractors, project managers, and construction companies to carry out serious planning in order to ensure project success and profits. This work examined project planning’s impact on a contractor’s profitability.

The objectives were to identify project planning techniques and tools used by contractors in construction project delivery, determine factors affecting project planning practices of contractors, and to evaluate the impact of proper project planning on contractor’s profitability. The research approach involved survey design using a structured questionnaire administered to 50 respondents in Owerri, Imo, Nigeria… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Projects are used in all economic and non-economic fields as a means of organizing the activity, aiming the achievement of desired objectives. There is a direct relationship between projects, projects portfolios, programs, and organizational strategy. Projects, as the main way of creating and dealing with change (Cleland, Gareis, 2006), are used to implement strategies.

Meskendahl (2010) refers to projects as the central building block used in implementing strategies, therefore business success is determined by the success of the projects. A project is an individual or collaborative enterprise, possibly involving research or design that is carefully planned, usually by a project team, to achieve a particular aim New York Times (2009). A project is also temporary because it has a defined beginning, end time, and defined scope and resources (Cathy, 2009)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Problem Statement

The general low usage of formal project planning and management techniques by Contractors globally often culminates into project failures, incessant claims for variations, huge financial losses, and sometimes results in bankruptcy of Contractors (Allan et al, 2007).

This situation is more prevalent in redevelopment projects due to the inevitable problems of unexpected additional work, excessive requirements and scope management issues, project funding not aligned with project plans, delay, structural failure, cost overrun, etc (Naaranoja and Uden, 2007). These problems or uncertainties, among others, increase the project risk and make their management crucial if success is desired… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objectives

1. To explore project planning practices applied by Julius Berger at various project levels.
2. To assess awareness and usage of formal and informal project planning practices by Julius Berger, Owerri office… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

In this chapter, the researcher will review existing literature generally on project planning and narrow it down to the effects it has on time, cost, and the general performance of an organization. Various concepts of project planning, contract management, and organizational performance are discussed, and previous and recent researches on project planning and its effect on cost and time are well outlined and stated.

Theoretical Framework

The contours of contract theory as a field are difficult to define. Many would argue that contract theory is a subset of Game Theory which is defined by the notion that one party to the game (typically called the principal) is given all of the bargaining power and so can make a take-it-or-leave-it offer to the other party or parties (i.e., the agent(s)). In fact, the techniques for screening contracts were largely developed by pure game theorists to study allocation mechanisms and game design. But then again, carefully defined, everything is a subset of game theory.

Others would argue that contract theory is an extension of price theory in the following sense. Price theory studies how actors interact where the actors are allowed to choose prices, wages, quantities, etc. and studies partial or general equilibrium outcomes. Contract theory extends the choice spaces of the actors to include richer strategies (i.e. contracts) rather than simple one-dimensional choice variables.

Hence, a firm can offer a nonlinear price menu to its customers (i.e., a screening contract) rather than a simple uniform price and an employer can offer its employee a wage schedule for differing levels of stochastic performance(i.e., an incentives contract) rather than a simple wage… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• The Social Contract Theory

In political philosophy the social contract or political contract is a theory or model, originating during the Age of Enlightenment, that typically addresses the questions of the origin of society and the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual.

Social contract arguments typically posit that individuals have consented, either explicitly or tacitly, to surrender some of their freedoms and submit to the authority of the ruler or magistrate (or to the decision of a majority), in exchange for protection of their remaining rights. The question of the relation between natural and legal rights, therefore, is often an aspect of social contract theory.

Although the antecedents of social contract theory are found in antiquity, in Greek and Stoic philosophy and Roman and Canon Law, as well as in the Biblical idea of the covenant, the heyday of the social contract was the mid-seventeenth to early nineteenth centuries when it emerged as the leading doctrine of political legitimacy… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• The Justice Theory

John Rawls (1921–2002) proposed a contractarian approach that has a decidedly Kantian flavor, in A Theory of Justice (1971), whereby rational people in a hypothetical “original position”, setting aside their individual preferences and capacities under a “veil of ignorance”, would agree to certain general principles of justice and legal organization. This idea is also used as a game-theoretical formalization of the notion of fairness… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

History of Contract

An empirical exploration of contracts is not a new thing. Some trace the roots of serious empirical exploration of private contracting to Stewart Macaulay’s seminal work in 1963. It may be said that empirics are playing catch-up to theory, which has had a significantly longer tradition in scholarship in law and social sciences. To understand the diversity of disciplinary approaches and framings of questions about contracts raised in modern empirical explorations, it may be useful to briefly articulate the intertwined trajectory of contract doctrine, theory, and empirics. Contracts are historically ancient means of managing and regulating dyadic exchanges.

Contract’s doctrinal roots are traceable to actions, which were variations on trespass, used in varied contexts like debt collection, marriage enforcement, surgical mishaps, and similar transactions. An action in contract distinct from trespass was perhaps first noted in1348 in the case of the Humber Ferryman (Simpson 1987). In that case, a ferryman was paid for transporting the plaintiff’s horse across a body of water, but the horse drowned allegedly due to the ferryman’s miscalculations… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Types of Contract

The basic types of contracts that you may come across are defined below.

• A sales contract is a contract between a company (the seller) and a customer where the company agrees to sell products and/or services. The customer in return is obligated to pay for the product/services bought.
• A purchasing contract is a contract between a company (the buyer) and a supplier who is promising to sell products and/or services within agreed terms and conditions. The company (buyer) in return is obligated to acknowledge the goods / or services and pay for liability created… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

THE ROLE OF PROJECT PLANNING IN INCREASING CONTRACTORS PROFIT

Recent empirical work on contracts has advanced our understanding of how contracting entities experience contracts in important ways. First, there is growing consensus among researchers that actors do not consistently behave rationally, or in ways that optimize efficiency.

This has been important particularly for those interested in how contracts may be written to incentivize performance (Brooks, Stremitzer and Tontrup 2012; Fehr, Hart and Zehnder 2011b; Feldman and Teichman 2011)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Introduction

This chapter describes the research design, population, sampling techniques, method of data collection as well as the method of data analysis used in this research.

Research Design

In designing the research, a plan was set to guide the researcher on data collection and analysis phases of the research project; however, the research design is a descriptive method and percentage representation. The number of the respondent that answer each question will be determined.

This will allow for easier comparison of responses of all the respondent in other to research logical and constructive conclusion also, the researcher adopted survey as one of the research methods which is meant to investigate, budgeting as an effective tool for planning control and increasing productivity as an instrument of development in the private sector as the researcher center of focus.

Area of the Study

Julius Berger Nigeria Plc is a Nigerian construction company, in Owerri Imo, located Imo Owerri

Population of the Study

The research population of this study of 100 staff of Julius Berger Nigeria Plc

Sample Size and Sampling Technique

The sample sized for this total population in the case of a large population under study, the researcher has decided to take a proportion of the population and study. The sample size used for this study is forty (40) out of the total population of a hundred (100)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Introduction

In this Chapter, all the data collected through the questionnaire administered were presented, analyzed, and interpreted using the Likert rating scale. Out of the 6 questionnaires administered, only 40 were returned representing 63% of the total and this is considered to be adequate.

Characteristics of Respondents

Table 4.1: Age Distribution of the Respondents

Table 4.1, 12.5% of the respondents are within the age of 6 – 19 years, 17.5% are within the age of 19-25, and 70% of the total respondents are 25 years and above.

Table 4.2: Sex Distribution of the Respondents

Table 4.2 above shows that the populations of the male are more than female, out of the total population of the respondents, 75% of the respondents are male while 25% are female.

Table 4.3: Education Distribution of the Respondents

Table 4.3 above, 12.5% of the respondents are a first school leaving certificate holder, 25% are secondary certificate, 30% are ND/NCE certificate, 20% are HND/BSc certificate while 12.5% are MSc holders.

Data Analysis

Table 4.4: Response on Budgeting services as an effective tool for planning and control for an increase in productivity

Source: Field Survey, 2016

The above 4.4 fives a mean score of 3.6 which is greater than the cut-off point of 3.0. These mean that budgeting serves as an effective tool for planning and control for the increase in productivity.

Table 4.5: Response on Private Sector apply budgetary planning and control procedure for its own operation

Source: Field Survey, 2016.

(Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Discussion of Findings

The researcher to give an answer to the following question has used this section:

• Budgeting planning and control techniques are used for increasing productivity in profit and non-profit making organizations.
• The budgeting system enhances productivity… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

The research gives an answer to each question using the information fro, the data analysis:

1. Budgeting planning and control techniques are used to increase productivity. The research question is answered in the table (7) the term budgeting is needed in both profit and non-profit making organizations to be able to run the affairs of the organization successfully.
2. Budgeting system enhance productivity, the research question is answered in the table (4) proper budgeting in an organization will result in greater output in terms of output that is what you produce… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

This chapter summarizes the literature review as well as the detailed analysis that has been undertaken in this research work and (budgeting as an effective tool for increasing productivity in the private sector). Therefore, based on the findings arrived at recommendations are given and conclusion… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Summary

The objective of the private sector is to improve the effectiveness and providing power service both internally and externally and to reduce cost. Budgeting as an effective tool, for planning and control, is an important aspect of the accounting system in both service and manufacturing organizations… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Conclusion

For budgeting to serve as an impact for planning and controlling mechanism technique, there has to be a plan upon which budget productivity is based. Productivity must be planned before it can be controlled operation has to be determined and analyzed into expenditure costs so as to know how realistic would be a contribution to project goals to make a budget without planning. It is just like putting the cart before the horse and a plan without a complimentary control would be pointless… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Recommendations

The researcher is of the opinion that long-range planning of the company should be pursued. This is because the company has benefited from it, ranging from the creation of economic and minimization e.g. its expenditure. However, in the area of its operational planning, the company should devise a good specialization policy so that each department within the company should perform the specific operation of function… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alces, Peter, and Michael Greenfield. 2010. “They Can Do What!? Limitations on the Use of Change-of-Terms Clauses.” Georgia State University Law Review 26(4):1099-145.

Atiyah, Patrick S. 1979. The Rise and Fall of Freedom of Contract: Oxford University Press.

Ayres, Ian, and Gregory Klass. 2005. Insincere Promises: The Law of Misrepresented Intent. NewHaven: Yale University Press.

Bakos, Yannis, Marotta-Wurgler, Florencia, and David R. Trossen. 2009. “Does Anyone Read the Fine Print? Testing a Law and Economics Approach to Standard FormContracts.”.” NYU Law and Economics Research Paper No. 09-40.

Bal, P. Matthijs, Annet H. De Lange, Paul G.W. Jansen, and Mandy E.G. Van Der Velde.2008. “Psychological Contract Breach and Job Attitudes: A Meta-analysis of Age as a moderator.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 72(1):143-58.

Barthélemy, Jérôme, and Bertrand V. Quelin. 2006. “Complexity of Outsourcing Contracts and Post Transaction Costs: An Empirical Investigation.” Journal of Management Studies43(8):1775-97. (Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)

Bebchuk, Lucian A., and Richard A. Posner. 2006. “One-Sided Contracts in CompetitiveConsumer Markets.” Michigan Law Review 104(5):828-36. (Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)

Becher, Shmuel I. 2009a. “A ‘Fair Contracts’ Approval Mechanism: Reconciling ConsumerContracts and Conventional Contract Law.” University of Michigan Journal of LawReform42:747-804. (Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)(Project Planning Techniques)

(Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

(Get the Complete Chapter One To Five Project Material)

CHAPTER ONEINTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Terrorism has become a global challenge requiring global approach for reasonable resolution. More than 600 identifiable terrorist groups exist worldwide (Thomas 2006). Size and membership vary vastly as some tend to be small and tight-knit, seldom numbering more than 100 members while some have grown to become both unwieldy and uncoordinated.

Indeed, some now have standing armies and patrols for soul conversion. Most of the terror cells and organizations are founded in the Middle East and are associated with Islamic fundamentalism, giving the impression that terrorism is a clash of religious beliefs.

This may not be so since terror cells exist in the Basque region of Spain and also in many Latin-American states. However, several regions of the world have suffered far more from terrorism in recent decades.

Terrorism has plagued many of the developing countries around the world, particularly in Asia and Africa for example in Algeria, where the government struggled to survive recurrent attacks in the 1990s; Israel where suicide bombings remain an ever-present threat; in Iraq after the U.S led invasion in April 2003 (Thomas 2006).

Other Persian Gulf states face similar problems. In fact, no Muslim government from North Africa to the Persian Gulf is free from the threat of terrorism. Several South American countries especially Peru, Colombia and Mexico have been plagued by terrorism for many years.

The most advanced industrial nations of Western Europe are not immune, either. One striking example is Great Britain, where Irish Republican Army (IRA) ultranationalists have conducted a terrorist campaign against British control of Northern Ireland (also known as ulster) since the late 1960s (Thomas 2006).

Terrorism, as an approach to normal struggles and conflicting demands in the human society aims at striking fears, confusions, over-reaction and panic into the hearts of leaders and citizens of attacked spots.

The fact that terrorists do not operate under accepted norms of warfare means they can choose and pick any point for attack and destruction and disappear into thin air after such attacks. This is why the phenomenon has become a universal problem.

For instance, the attack of Boko Haram on the United Nations building in Abuja in 2011 affected Nigerians and other foreigners that was in the building at that moment. Nine Nigerians were adversely affected in terms of serious injuries and loss of lives.

On February 1993, a yellow Ryder rental van containing a 1,200 pound bomb exploded in the parking garage of the World Trade Center in New York. The blast instantly created a 200-foot crater in the basement of the world’s second largest building. Over a thousand people were injured and seven people died from the incident (Thomas 2006).

Eight and one-half years later, on September 11, 2001 when the World Trade Center was again attacked by Osama bin Laden as the World Trade Center towers were hit by hijacked commercial airlines loaded with highly volatile jet fuel.

It was not only the Americans that were affected. Rather it was the whole world that was affected by the incident because almost all the countries in the world have a representative there. This creates fear in the mind of the people and it has psychological effect on their lives. Terrorists around the world get information from one another.

They share idea with other terrorists everywhere. There is close contact among them across the globe because of the free flow of information among them arising from revolution in information technology, causing threat to international peace and security. Another global impact of terrorism is wastage of…….

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

This study seeks to examine the effect of domestic terrorism on Nigeria’s foreign policy. This is imperative considering the fact that protracted and intractable security challenges arising from domestic terrorism will cast blight on Nigeria’s image in international politics with the devastating implications for the efficiency, consistency and relevance of its foreign policy pursuit.

The emergence of terrorism in Nigeria has not only dented the country‟s image at the international level, but has also greatly affected its foreign relations policy in recent times. The activities of the Boko Haram insurgency have led to the negative reactions on the part of the countries that want or will want to relate with Nigeria.

Apart from the loss of interest in establishing vibrant relations with Nigeria, there is reduction in the economic investment in the country.

Also the activities of the Boko Haram insurgency has spoilt the image of Nigeria in the international system because Nigeria as a big brother of Africa who engages in different peace keeping operations

within Africa and in the international system is not really actively involved in peace keeping mission anymore because it also battling with issue of terrorism at home which has deprived the country of achieving one of its foreign policy objectives.

The attacks of Boko Harm insurgency has moved to her neighboring counties like Chad, Cameroons, Niger and Benin Republic. Existing studies seems to be suffused with issues of

Nigeria’s foreign policy particularly in relation to the country’s degree of importance at international politics, and how this has impacted on its foreign policy framework and implementation.

A plethora of studies have also examined the evolution and manifestation of domestic terrorism in Nigeria and the devastating consequences on national security. However, extent body of literature has not done much work in examining foreign policy.

Therefore, the preoccupation of this study is to systematically examine the main view of its implications for the country’s foreign policy within the context of international politics.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The central objective of this study is to examine and evaluate the effect of domestic terrorism on Nigeria’s foreign policy. Moreover, the study aims at achieving the following specific objectives:

1. To examine the emergence of domestic terrorism in Nigeria.

2. To evaluate how terrorist activities have undermine Nigeria foreign policy.

3. To investigate the measures taken by the Nigeria government in combating terrorism4. To make recommendation based on these findings on the Nigeria government how government should address the issue of terrorism.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. How did domestic terrorism start in Nigeria?

2. How have terrorist activities undermined the Nigeria foreign policy relations with other countries in the international system?

3. What are the measures taken by the Nigeria government in combating terrorism in the country?4. What are the steps Nigerian governments should take in addressing the issue of terrorism in the country?

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This research work will contribute to knowledge by helping to enlighten, develop and inform government, law enforcement agencies, researchers and students on the reoccurring activities as well as implications of domestic terrorist.

The study also seeks to intimate policy makers to be proactive, responsive and constructively diplomatic in its approaches to the pursuit of foreign policy in the interest of the territorial integrity of the Nigeria state and the common good of the citizenry.

The study will shed more light on the emergence of domestic terrorism in Nigeria, and how this has affected its foreign policy relations among the county of nations.

The study will also generate future research opportunities to those who are interested in the area of the study.

Do You Have New or Fresh Topic? Send Us Your Topic 

1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The scope of this research work is on the effect of domestic terrorism on Nigeria’s foreign policy using the case study of Boko Haram insurgency from 2011 till date. During the course of this

research, the researcher envisages some constraints such as budgetary financial constraints, uncooperative attitude of the respondents towards questionnaire and inaccessibility to detail information. However, these limitations will not have substantial adverse effect on the generalization of the findings.

THE PROBLEMS OF DOMESTIC TERRORISM ON NIGERIA’S FOREIGN POLICY: A CASE STUDY OF BOKO HARAM INSURGENCY IN NIGERIA

[ad_2]

ABSTRACT

The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 chose certain rights to protect under chapter IV and termed them as Fundamental Rights. These rights are chosen to be protected not only by the Constitution, but also by the African Charter on Human and Peoples Right. Whenever there are breaches of these fundamental rights, the law provides a procedure for their enforcement, which is the Fundamental Rights (Enforcement Procedure) Rules 2009.

The basic objective of the 2009 Rules is to facilitate enforcement procedure by removing some of the impediments in 1979 rule. Unfortunately it is clear that the procedure for enforcement of Fundamental Rights is still bedeviled by delay. Many applications alleging serious human rights violations are routinely struck out or dismissed. However, the pertinent question is: to what extent are the human rights provision in these legal instruments realized or enforced?(Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

Human Rights that are enforceable in law are those rights which are recognized by law as Fundamental Rights as distinguished from mere aspirations or individuals ideas of rights. These Fundamental Rights are now embodied in Chapter IV of the Nigerian Constitution of 1999 from Section 33 to 46, and the African Charter on Human and People Rights, which was ratified and re-enacted as a Municipal Law by the National Assembly on the 17th March 1983. The chapter provides a background to the enforceability of human right and specification of the objective of the study.

The Charter became part of Nigerian Law by virtue of the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights (Application and Enforcement) Act.  Although human rights had been part and parcel of the successive Nigerian Constitutions since Independence in 1960, the Fundamental Rights Enforcement Procedure Rules (hereinafter referred to as ‘Fundamental Rights Enforcement Procedure Rules’) were first introduced in 1979.

Hitherto, the principal means for enforcing human rights were the prerogative writs of Habeas Corpus, Certiorari, Mandamus and Prohibition. These were often found cumbersome, somewhat technical and lacking in the flexibility necessary for the proactive pursuit of human rights claims. In the wake of the 1966 military coup in Nigeria, the 1963 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria was suspended, including chapter two on the protection of human rights… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

Statement of the Research Problem

The current procedural rule for the commencement of an action for the enforcement of Fundamental Human Rights is guided by the Fundamental Rights (Enforcement Procedure) Rules 2009 made pursuant to Section 46(3) of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria by the Chief Justice of the Federation.

The current fundamental rights enforcement procedure rules, which were signed on 11th November, 2009 by a past Chief Justice of Nigeria, (CJN) Justice Idris Legbo Kutigi, came into force with immediate effect. The 2009 Fundamental Rights Enforcement Procedure Rules are aimed at advancing democracy… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

Research Objectives

The aim of this research is to examine the Fundamental Rights (Enforcement Procedure) Rules 2009 towards the enforcement of fundamental rights. The research therefore sets its objectives as follows:

• To provide a critical appraisal of the Fundamental Rights (Enforcement Procedure) Rules 2009, on the enforcement of Fundamental Human Rights in Nigeria… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

Conceptual Framework

The word “right” is derived from the Latin word rectus which means that to which a person has just, valid claim. This right may be classified into legal right, which is the liberty of acting or abstaining from acting on a specific manner, or the power of compelling a specific person to do or abstain from doing a particular thing.

The Black’s Law Dictionary defines right as that which is proper under the law, morality or ethics, something that is due to a person by just claim, legal guarantees or legal principle… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

Natural law Approach and the Sociological Approach to Human Right

The natural law approach:  philosophers and jurists in their search for a law that was higher than positive law, developed the theory of natural law. It was first elaborated by the stoics of the Greek Hellenistic period, and later by those of the Roman period. Natural law, they believed, embodied those elementary principles of justice which were right reason i.e. in accordance with nature unalterable and natural.

Medieval Christian philosophers, such as Thomas Acquinas, put a great stress on natural law as conferring certain immutable rights upon individuals as part of the law of God… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

Theoretical Framework

The development of human rights has gone through three contemporary generations. The first generation deals with the question of civil and political rights. A right is political when it gives an individual the rights to participate in decision making e.g. the age in which to participate in politics. Civil rights are rights given to civilians; the example of civil and political rights is the entire Chapter Four of the Nigeria constitution.

This has been the trend of the Nigerian Constitution.Such rights include; rights to life, freedom from torture and inhuman treatments, freedom from slavery and forcedlabours, freedom of movement, Right to fair hearing, freedom of thoughts, conscience and religion… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

APPRAISAL OF THE FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS ENFORCEMENT PROCEDURE RULES 2009

The current procedural rule for the commencement of an action for the enforcement of Fundamental Human Rights is guided by the Fundamental Rights (Enforcement Procedure) Rules 2009 made pursuant to Section 46(3) of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria by the Chief Justice of the Federation. The current fundamental rights enforcement procedure rules, which were signed on 11th November, 2009 by a past Chief Justice of Nigeria, (CJN) Justice Idris Legbo Kutigi, came into force with immediate effect.

Access to Justice in the Fundamental Rights Enforcement Procedure Rules 2009

The FREP Rules, 2009 imposes a duty on the court to pursue enhanced access to justice for all classes of litigants, especially, the poor, the illiterate, the uninformed, the vulnerable, the incarcerated and the unrepresented. In this regard, Clause (d) of the FREP Rules, 2009 provides to the effect that the court shall proactively pursue enhanced access to justice for all classes of litigants, especially the poor, the illiterate, the uninformed, the vulnerable, the incarcerated and the unrepresented. This, of course, is one of the overriding objectives enshrined in the preamble to the 2009 FREP Rules… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ON THE CAUSE OF ACTION AND PROCEDURE FOR ENFORCEMENT IN THE FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS ENFORCEMENT PROCEDURE RULES 2009

Findings

Jurisdiction of Courts: Jurisdiction means the authority which a court has to decide matters that are litigated before it or to take cognizance of matters presented in a formal way for its decision. The limits of this authority are imposed by the statute, charter or commission under which the court is constituted and may be extended or restricted by similar means; if no restriction is imposed the jurisdiction is unlimited.

A limitation may either be as to the kind and nature of the actions and matters of which a particular court had cognizance or as to area over which the jurisdiction extends or it may partake of both these… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

Discussion

With the promulgation of Fundamental Rights (Enforcement Procedure) Rules 2009, efforts to tackle human rights abuses which are prevalent in Nigeria received a boost. By paragraph 3(e) of the preamble to the Rules, the Courts are obliged to encourage and welcome public interest litigation in human right cases.

Other persons that can institute human right cases are human rights activists, advocates or group as well as any non-governmental organization who may institute human rights application on behalf of any potential applicant… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

In the course of this work the researcher made the following findings.

The review of cases shows that no consistent test is applied in determining the distinction between principal and ancillary claim. Some of the instances of the distinction cannot be explained on any ground other than that the court laboured under an improper understanding of the scope of the different rights protected by chapter IV of the constitution… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

Conclusion

The Fundamental Rights (Enforcement Procedure) Rules 2009 replaced the fundamental Rights (Enforcement Procedure) Rules 1979, bringing new modification to enhance public interest litigations in the field of human rights. With the Fundamental Rights (Enforcement Procedure) Rules 2009, there is improvement such as in the area of human right in the aspect of enforcement e.g the abolishment of LucusStandi and leave for enforcement… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

Recommendations

It is recommended that:

• It is imperative that the Supreme Court formalizes the understanding that the distinction between principal and ancillary claim negates human rights, and hence discard this dichotomy… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

AbiolaOjo,(1977),Fundamental Human Rights in Nigeria,The 1963 and 1979 constitutional Provisions Afolayan A.F. and Okorie P.C (2007) modern civil procedure Law, Dee-Sage, Lagos.

Black‟s Law Dictionary, 8^th Edition

Dalhatu M.B,(2008), What is Constitutional Law, Sacombuc, Zaria.

Eze.O. (1988) Human Rights in Africa, Nigerian Law Publication Ltd, Lagos.

Femi Falana,(2010), Fundamental Human Rights Enforcement in Nigeria, Legal text, Lagos

Gye-Wado O.A,(1990), Comparative analysis of International Framework for Enforcemnet of Human Rights in Africa and Europe, RADIC.

Gye-Wado.O,(1999),The Role of Admissibility Under,the African Charter on Human and Peoples‟ Right,3 Radic.

H.L.Peacock, A History of modern Europe 1889-1979,Heinmann Educational book,Hong Kong.

Human Rights as a Problem in contemporary Africa,(1984) in Welch and Meltzer(eds), Human Rights and Development in Africa, Albany sunny press

Jadesola A.O, (1982), The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Sweet and Maxwell, London

Jean-Bernard Marie,(2003) National Systems for the Protection of Human Rights in Human Rights International Protection, Monitoring Enforcement, Januzsy monides(Ed.) Aldershot Hants, Ashgate, UNESCO Publlishing,

KayodeEso ,(2008),Thoughts on Human Rights and Education, Paul‟s Publishing House.

Lien,A.J(1973) AFragment of Thoughts Concerning the Native and Fulfilment of Human Rights, West part Greenwood Publishers

Mohammmed Tawfiq Ladan, (1999) International Humanitarian Laws, Ahmadu Bello University, ABU Press, Zaria

Journal and Reports

A.Oputa, (1988) access to justice, law and practice vol. No 1 of August.

Annal Report of Human Rights Situation in Nigeria 1995, Published by the Committee for the Defence of Human Rights (CDHR).

Audi J.A.M.(2012),Challenges of Constitutional Governance in Nigeria, in Legal Essay in Honour of Dr Samson Sani, Private Law Department, ABU.

JHRLP V 4Nos .12&3 December 1994,

Kabir Mohammed Danladi,(2006),The  Imperative of Reviewing the Fundamental Rights (Enforcement Procedure)Rules.ABU Law Journal,vol.24-25

Papers/Thesis/Desertations

Dalhatu. M.B, 2008, The Role of the Judiciary in the Enforcement of Human Rights in

Nigeria,(Unpublished Phd Thesis)Faculty of Law, Ahmadu Bello University,Zaria

Kabir Mohammad Danladi,2010, A Comparative Analysis of European Convention on Human Rights and AfricanCharter onHuman and Peoples Rights,(Unpublished Phd dissertation)Faculty of Law, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

Web Resources

Abdulwahab Abdullahi, Innovation in New Fundamental Rights Rule, retrieved January,2012,www.vanguardngr.com

Gye-wado.O,A ,1990,Comparative Analysis of International Framework for Enforcement of Human

(Get the Complete Project Material)