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Patient Suffering From Mental And Behavioral Disorder Secondary To Multiple Psychoactive Substance Use

Chapter one

1.0 Introduction.

Young people and adults with unsound minds can be found in both urban and rural settings. They roam around, occasionally begging for food or money. It is clear that they are mentally ill when they speak to themselves or others.

Those who know them well in their neighbourhood might link their problems back to excessive alcohol use, smoking, and/or drug usage, such as marijuana.

Unfortunately, despite the overwhelming proof of medicines’ detrimental consequences, healthy people continue to use them. Drug misuse is not limited to any single country.

Governments around the world struggle to regulate illegal drug trafficking. Those that engage in the illegal drug trade are determined to continue because they make a lot of money.

According to the Merck Manual of Medical Information (2003), substance abuse is defined as the use of mind-altering drugs without a medical need in an amount or over a period of time sufficient to endanger the user’s or others’ quality of life, health, or safety.

Our youth are increasingly using substances such as alcohol, cannabis, and amphetamines. Teenagers and youths aged 15 to 30 are the highest risk groups, with females also involved. Other groups of abusers include divers, conductors, civil officers, and artists.

Illicit drugs such as cocaine and heroin, as well as legal substances such as paracetamol, chloroquine, cough syrup, and so on, can be used in excess or without a medical prescription.

According to APA (2000) in DSM IV TR, substance abuse is a maladaptive pattern of drug use characterised by recurring and major negative outcomes associated with the repeated use of substances that pose considerable health risks.

Individuals who abuse substances may face negative repercussions such as frequent failure to fulfil responsibilities, legal challenges, or social and interpersonal problems.

1.1 Literature Review.

According to the American Psychiatric Association (2000), drug abuse is defined as the continued use of a psychoactive substance despite knowledge of having a persistent or recurrent social, vocational, psychological, or medical problem caused by the substance’s deliberate use.

Commonly Abused Drugs in Nigeria

According to the NDLEA and NDICP (2014)

· Sedatives, including barbiturates and moderate tranquillizers.

· Cannabis, including marijuana and hashish.

· Examples of hallucinogens include dertrover and Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD).

· Narcotics, including heroin and methadone.

· Stimulants, including cocaine and amphetamines.

Sedatives

These are a class of medications intended to calm the nervous system and promote sleep. When taken in tiny dosages, they can alleviate daytime stress and anxiety. Barbiturates constitute the largest subset of sedatives.

Some barbiturates are short-acting and quick to start, whereas others are slow-acting and long-acting. The most commonly abused sedatives are those that take a long time to take effect.

Cannabis

For thousands of years, this plant has been produced for its fibre and oil-rich seeds. The leaves and greenish blossoms contain a potent nercotic chemical. The leaves and blooms are prepared and consumed in numerous ways, including eating, drinking, inhaling, and smoking. It is not used medicinally.

The drug is recognised by a variety of names around the world, including marijuana and hashish. The drug’s strongest version is derived from a chemical found in the blooms of female plants. Frequently, the leaves are merely dried, powdered, and blended with tobacco in cigarettes or smoked alone.

Hallucinogens

These are medicines that can cause changes in sensations, thoughts, distorted perceptions, self-awareness, and emotions. They interfere with the user’s capacity to distinguish between reality and fantasy. The severity of hallucinations experienced by users is determined on the drug dose.

Nercotics

These are medications that frequently impair the senses. They also help patients fall asleep and ease pain. Nercotics, which typically relate to opium and its derivatives, in large dosages can cause full sensory loss.

Nercotics operate as depressants on certain parts of the brain and nervous system. They can also lessen hunger, thirst, and sexual desire in addition to pain.

Stimulants

These are a series of medications that stimulate the neural system. They include caffeine (which is found in coffee, tea, and some soft drinks). Caffeine’s effects are modest. Amphetamines and cocaine are both strong stimulants.

1.2 Incidence.

The illicit use of alcohol and other drugs (substance abuse) is on the rise, particularly among teenagers and young people. This is evident in the number of admissions registered at various psychiatric health facilities.

Merck (2003) stated that numerous medications, some legal and some illegal, change the mind. Some mind-altering medicines affect brain function every time they are used, regardless of how much is taken. Other mind-altering medications have an effect on brain function only when used in large quantities or on a continuous basis.

Some people, such as those with sickle cell anaemia, may develop an addiction to the substance they are being treated with, such as injectable pentazocine.

The following are some theories and concepts linked to substance misuse.

§ Peer-Group Theory:

This idea proposes that teenagers use substances in order to be accepted by their peers.

§ Drug Personality Theory:

This indicates that drug users were nonconformists, whereas conformists did not use drugs. This is based on a longitudinal study.

§ Parental Influence Theory.

This indicated that bad parent-child relationships appear to contribute to the development of substance addiction. Drug use, particularly with alcohol, is learnt.

§ Deviance Theory:

According to the statement, using substance is associated with the fact that when a culture or sub-cultural group is stigmatised or penalised, its members adopt values in order to live in such an environment.

1.3 Definitions.

Drug: Any chemical substance used to treat, cure, prevent, or diagnose disease, or to otherwise improve physical or mental well-being.

Drug abuse is defined as the use of drugs without a medical prescription that endangers one’s health and interferes with physical, psychological, social, or occupational activities.

Drug Dependence: This is a strong need to continue taking a mind-altering drug in order to experience pleasure, relieve anxiety and tension, and avoid discomfort.

Tolerance: The requirement to utilise increasing amounts of the medicine to attain the same effects as the initial dose.

Withdrawal Syndrome is a group of symptoms that appear after discontinuing or reducing substance usage.

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Comparative Study Of Electrolyte Patterns In Sickle Cell Disease Patients

ABSTRACT

A comparative study of electrolyte trends in sickle cell disease patients in Owerri was conducted. A total of 60 participants between the ages of 18 and 40 were recruited at random.

30 people had sickle cell disease, while 30 subjects who functioned as controls did not. Serum electrolytes were measured using a colorimetric method, and the manufacturer’s standard operating procedures were meticulously followed.

The data were compared between sickle cell sufferers and controls. Comparative analysis was also conducted based on the patients’ age groupings. Statistical analyses were performed using the student independent t-test and anova.

The study found that sickle cell anaemia patients had a significantly lower (P<0.05) blood sodium concentration (102.93 ± 10.91mEq/L) than control subjects (139.10 ± 5.01mEq/L). The older patients had lower sodium levels.

Potassium content in patients (5.53 ±0.37 mEq/L) was substantially lower than in control subjects (4.17 ± 0.49 mEq/L). Potassium levels were greater among elderly patients. The study found that sickle cell anaemia caused a significant (P<0.05) drop in serum chloride content compared to control participants.

In sickle cell patients, the chloride concentration was 73.77 ± 8.06 mEqL, while in normal people it was 103.07 ± 12.41. Older patients had lower chloride levels. The patient’s bicarbonate concentration (17.57±2.47mEq/L) was substantially lower than the control participants’ (24.17±2.49mEq/L).

Patients aged 27-33 had lower bicarbonate levels (17.82± 1.24 mEq/l), while those aged 18-26 had higher levels (20.43±2.18 mEq/l). In conclusion, electrolyte loss in sickle cell disease patients is most likely caused by dehydration

which accelerates the influx and outflow of sodium and potassium ions, respectively. The regular assessment of sodium and potassium is required in the care of sickle cell patients.

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Study Aims At Evaluating The Hepatocellular Function Of E-Waste Workers In Nigeria

Chapter One

1.0Introduction

1.1.0 Background of the Study

The globe has recently seen significant technological and industrial advancements. Electrical and electronic equipment has been manufactured to fulfil the economic demands of the growing population. These appliances have entered every part of our life, offering our society with more comfort, health, and security, as well as easier access to information.

Unfortunately, these electrical and electronic goods were created with over 1000 chemicals that are harmful to both humans and the environment. Most of these electrical and electronic gadgets have a limited lifespan and are quickly obsolete with the introduction of newer ones, therefore old ones are discarded as waste.

Electrical and electronic items are the fastest growing waste stream in the world due to their enormous production volumes and short lifespan (Betram et al., 2002).

The population is becoming more exposed to potentially harmful compounds as a result of poor and risky management techniques for the disposal and recycling of end-of-life electrical and electronic equipment, also known as e-waste.

E-waste includes all secondary computers, entertainment device electronics, mobile phones, and other products such as televisions and refrigerators that have been sold, donated, or dumped by their original owner.

Polychlorinated biphenyls, tetrabromo-bisphenol-A, chlorofluorocarbons, polyvinylchloride, dioxins, and furans are some of the harmful elements in E-waste. Lead, cadmium, chromium, mercury, copper, manganese, nickel, arsenic, zinc, iron, and aluminium are among the potentially harmful metals (Jinhui et al., 2011).

These E-wastes are generated in developed countries such as the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, Switzerland, Taiwan, and Japan. Each year, many million tonnes of these wastes are generated.

According to a survey conducted in Western Europe, 6 million tonnes of E-waste were generated in 1998 and are predicted to increase by at least 3-5% annually (Cui and Forssberg, 2003). These wastes end up in landfills and incineration facilities.

Toxic metals are released into the atmosphere as fly ash during burning of these wastes, and in landfills they leach into the environment and water bodies. To address the problem of garbage, wealthy countries export it to developing countries such as Nigeria, which is more cost effective for them.

Over 500 containers of used electronics are expected to be imported into Nigeria each month from Europe, with each container containing hundreds to thousands of PCs and other e-waste gadgets (Aragba-Akore, 2005).

In an effort to close the technological gap, developing countries willingly embrace these wastes. Furthermore, because they are impoverished, individuals choose to acquire used electrical and technological equipment.

The manpower costs for repair and refurbishment have resulted in a substantial electronic re-use market in poor nations such as Nigeria. Unfortunately, underdeveloped nations lack the technology to recycle these pollutants. They adopt primitive procedures with little or no technology to reduce exposure to dangerous E-waste components (Wong et al., 2007).

People who work directly with e-waste are highly exposed to hazardous chemicals and poisonous metals. The burning of E-waste components releases these chemicals and metals into the atmosphere.

On the other side, these metals leak into the soil and nearby water bodies, accumulating in aquatic species. As a result, individuals are exposed to e-waste components and associated contaminants via polluted soil, dust, air, water, and food sources, including meat (Robinson, 2009).

Aside from environmental problems, toxic elements discovered in electronic trash pose a serious risk to human health. People who break open electronic garbage frequently experience radiation, nausea, migraines, and respiratory failure, among other health issues.

However, the hazardous impacts of e-waste affect not only those who work directly with electronic wastes, but also those who live near waste dumps and those who are indirectly harmed by the consequent contamination of the food chain, soils, and rivers.

These individuals are exposed to hazardous compounds by cutaneous contact, nutritional consumption, dust inhalation, or particle ingestion, with the latter two routes being particularly relevant.

Chemicals from e-waste, such as lead, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, polybrominated biphenyls, and other persistent organic pollutants, can harm the human brain and nervous system (Dietrich et al., 2011; Guilarte et al., 2012), harm the kidneys (Hellstrom et al., 2001) and liver (Sauer et al., 1997; Liu et al., 2000), and cause birth defects (Wu etal., 2012).

The Minamata disease in Japan between 1954 and 1965, the Love Canal incident near Niagara Falls in the US, the Koko incident of 1988 in Nigeria, the Zamfara lead poisoning in Nigeria, the Thor Chemicals diseases of the early 1990s in South Africa, and the disastrous Trafigura dumping of hazardous wastes incident in Ivory Coast in 2006, are among the numerous pointers to the grave consequences that unscrupulous waste dumping could have on human beings jeopardising their lives.

The liver is the largest visceral organ in the body. It is situated inferior to the diaphragm and upper right of the abdomen. It is well-supplied with blood and connects to the gastrointestinal system via the portal vein.

It functions as the body’s metabolic hub. The liver is a natural chemical factory that converts simple compounds received from the gastrointestinal tract into complex molecules such as proteins, glycogen, hormones, and blood clotting factors. It neutralises toxins and produces bile, which facilitates fat digestion and eliminates toxins via the bowels (Buraimoh et al., 2011).

Continuous exposure and poisoning of the liver by various exogenous chemicals on a regular basis may result in hepatic impairment (Nithya et al., 2012). Toxic metals are known to cause liver damage, which, once established, affects liver function.

Most hazardous metals, including arsenic, copper, mercury, and iron, are hepatotoxic (Feroz & Nahida, 2012). Cadmium has also been classified as hepatotoxic because it induces peroxidative damage to the membranes of cells in several organs, including the liver, resulting in necrosis (Remugadev and Prabu, 2010; Murugaveh and Prari, 2007). In another study conducted by Sharma and Pandey (2010), lead was found to be hepatotoxic.

The various mechanisms by which these toxic metals from E-waste cause hepatotoxicity range from interference with the hepatocyte cell membrane, generation of reactive oxygen species, lipid peroxidation (Gurer and Ercal, 2000), depletion of glutathione (Gurer et al., 1998), inhibition of antioxidant enzymes by displacing the metal co-factor in these enzymes, and blocking mitochondrial permeability for example, mercury (Nilcolli et al., 1995).

1.2.0 Justification of the Study

Nigeria, like other developing countries, has been legally or illegally importing electronic garbage, and we lack the technology to fully recycle it. Furthermore, persons who work with E-waste lack access to protective equipment that would decrease their exposure to dangerous E-waste components. As a result, they are always vulnerable.

The irresponsible disposal of these wastes endangers not only the workers but also others living further away because they pollute the environment. Many studies on the risks of e-waste have been conducted in countries such as China and India. As a result, this study in Nigeria is significant.

1.3.0 Aim of the Study

The purpose of this study is to assess the hepatocellular function of E-waste workers in Nigeria who have been exposed to hazardous metals and compare them to similarly exposed persons.

1.4.0 Specific Objectives

To assess liver enzymes in those exposed to harmful metals in e-waste and compare them to those who are not or have been exposed slightly by assessing serum levels of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, and gamma glutamyltransferase.

To assess the liver’s biosynthetic capability, serum total protein and albumin levels were estimated.

To assess the liver’s biotransformation activity by calculating serum bilirubin levels.

1.5.0 Research Hypothesis

Chronic and chronic exposure to hazardous metals in E-waste may harm the liver.

Chronic and persistent exposure to hazardous metals may not harm the liver.

1.6.0 Scope of the Study

The current study assesses the hepatocellular status of WEEE workers in Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria.

1.7.0 Informed Consent.

Individuals who participated in this study provided their personal informed permission after fully understanding the nature and objectives of the investigation and completing a questionnaire to that end.

1.8.0 Ethical approval

The protocol for the work has been submitted to the Ethical Committee School of Basic Medical Sciences and is awaiting approval.

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Treatment And Prevention Of Sexually Transmitted Disease

ABSTRACT

This project provides a summary of the full research study, which was meant to determine the best course of action for the treatment and prevention of sexually transmitted diseases in Egor Local Government Area, Edo State.

This study included respondents from secondary schools, tertiary institutions, civil servants, and traders. Topics covered included mode of transmission, factors predisposing youths to STDs, symptoms, treatment, diagnosis, prognosis, and preventive measures for sexually transmitted diseases, as well as control and eradication efforts.

The questionnaire served as the research instrument: A total of 343 questionnaires were distributed to respondents. Data analysis from the questionnaires revealed that abstinence from sex and faithfulness to one partner is the best prevention from STD.

Various recommendations were made, including the incorporation of sex, faithfulness to one partner, abstinence, and parental guidance for youths.

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Impact Of Non-Traditional Variables In Health Care Risk Adjustment

Chapter one

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Since the publication of the Academy’s “Monograph Number One” with the title, “Health Risk Assessment and Health Risk Adjustment—Crucial Elements in Effective Health Care Reform” in May 1993, the business of risk adjustment has advanced significantly.

Less than ten years later, we had hospital inpatient diagnosis-based options, such as the Market Stabilisation Pool’s model for small group and individual coverage in New York State, along with required community rating. The PIP-DCG strategy for Medicare + Choice, which is also inpatient only, was shortly adopted.

Variables in risk adjustment models have incorporated demographic (age and gender) and clinical markers based on ICD-9 diagnosis codes and/or pharmacy codes such as the National Drug Codes (NDCs). Other variables, such as geography, Body Mass Index (BMI)

education, and wealth, have been identified in the literature as explaining variations in healthcare costs but have not yet been included in risk adjustment algorithms, owing to the fact that such variables are not commonly discovered in claims data.

If these atypical variables explain meaningful variation in cost beyond traditional risk adjustment models, issuers may be incentivised to pick specific members. If such incentives result in selection that has an impact on issuers’ financial performance, the risk adjustment program’s policy goals will be undercut.

Recognising the need of protecting risk adjustment programs from selection based on nontraditional variables, the Society of Actuaries’ Health Section funded a comprehensive investigation of the association between nontraditional variables and health expenditures.

This report covers the findings of the study. We used data from the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS) for this study. Section 3.4 provides specific details about the data and preparation.

This data is unusual in that it combines a wide range of individual variables (from BMI to whether a person has problems enjoying hobbies) with healthcare claim information.

There are restrictions to using MEPS data, which are explored further in Section 4. The findings of this study show that it is critical to modify the classic risk adjustment model in order to identify atypical variables. The study introduces a new measure (Loss Ratio Advantage, or LRA) to assess the impact of a nontraditional variable on a risk adjustment program.

The report uses this metric to compare the importance of over thirty factors selected systematically from a list of over fifteen hundred variables characterising diverse characteristics of the general population.

The atypical factors were broadly classified as

(1) demographic,

(2) economic,

(3) lifestyle,

(4) psychological self-assessment (how a person thinks about their mental health), and

(5) physical self-assessment.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Risk adjustment of any form is necessarily imperfect; yet, the complexity and sophistication of risk adjustment models has grown dramatically in recent decades. The Affordable Care Act (ACA) will require risk adjustment for non-grandfathered commercial small group and individual coverage both inside and outside Exchanges.

Using a methodical and rigorous methodology, the researcher investigated a vast list of non-traditional health cost drivers, selected the most important ones, and tested their impact on bottom-line medical costs when incorporated into the usual risk adjustment model.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1. To investigate the link between nontraditional characteristics and health-care risk adjustment in Nigeria.

4. Determine the impact of non-traditional variables on healthcare risk adjustment in Nigeria.

1.4 Research questions.

1. Is there a link between nontraditional characteristics and health-care risk adjustment in Nigeria?

4. Do non-traditional variables have a substantial impact on healthcare risk adjustment in Nigeria?

1.5 Research Hypotheses

Ho: There is no link between non-traditional variables and health-care risk adjustment in Nigeria.

Hi: There is a relationship between non-traditional variables and healthcare risk adjustment in Nigeria.

Ho: Non-traditional variables have no substantial influence on health-care risk adjustment in Nigeria.

Hi: Non-traditional variables have a substantial impact on healthcare risk adjustment in Nigeria.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The Affordable Care Act (ACA) includes a risk adjustment mechanism in commercial small group and individual markets to further the policy goals of premium stabilisation, mitigating incentives for healthcare coverage policy issuers (issuers) to avoid unhealthy members, and eliminating any advantages or disadvantages for plans within healthcare exchanges compared to plans outside of such exchanges.

The relevance of risk adjustment to these policy goals cannot be overstated, and details such as the factors included in the risk assessment formula influence the program’s success in reaching these objectives.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The paper examines the impact of non-traditional variables on health care risk adjustment in Nigeria, with the University of Uyo Teaching Hospital (UTH) in the Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom state serving as a case study.

1.8 Study Limitations

This study has some limitations, particularly in the area of data gathering. Other considerations that would limit the scope of the investigation include financial constraints and the amount of time available to complete the study.

1.9 Definition of Terms

Health care is the organised provision of medical services to people or communities.

Non-traditional: Not adhering to or in accord with tradition.

Risk adjustment is a notion that refines an investment’s return by determining how much risk is involved in generating that return.

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Problems Of Drug Abuse On Student Academic Performance In Secondary Schools

Chapter one

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background for the Study

Prior to the ages of 9 and 10, the majority of a child’s behaviour is directly impacted by his or her parents. However, following this age, when they begin secondary school, the child, particularly the boy child, prefers to seek guidance and influence from his or her classmates.

This can be both a positive and negative development since, for starters, it is a very rapid way of socialisation. A child learns considerably more rapidly and enthusiastically from his classmates than he does from his own family.

As a result, he swiftly absorbs the different implicit cultural and societal standards of respect, communal understanding, and a larger worldview than those provided by his parents.

In any case, this can be unfavourable because the child’s classmates are always youngsters his age; children who are curious and extremely experimental, but lack the answers they seek or a full understanding of the implications of their actions.

What could go wrong in such a dangerous situation is a collection of acquired behaviours that are antithetical to the concept underlying the child’s education, one of which is drug usage.

Against this backdrop, this research project has taken it upon itself to investigate the effects of drug misuse on student academic performance in secondary school.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Academic greatness demands far more than skilled teachers, a welcoming environment, enough reading resources, and a solid curriculum. More importantly, the subject, or student, must be in good psychological health, and the youngster must be willing to actively participate in the process of self-development.

This procedure must be emphasised in the child’s thinking as being of the highest priority. In the case that this soundness of mind cannot be met due to a mental defect, plans are created to adapt to such an illness.

However, substance misuse has positioned itself against this critical criteria for effective learning. And it is prevalent at the elementary and secondary levels of education, particularly in the latter. The goal of this research is to investigate this problem and, perhaps, propose a realistic and qualitative answer.

1.3 Research Questions.

1.3.1 What causes a secondary school kid to engage in drug usage.

1.3.2 To what extent does this habit harm the child’s academic achievement.

1.3.3 Who is best positioned to prevent the perpetuation of this problem?

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The academic goal of this research is to successfully analyse the processes of child radicalisation that lead to drug dependence. Drug misuse in adolescents has long been viewed through the lens of university undergraduates, who are stereotyped as the most prone to drug usage.

Since the tediousness of university activities can logically lead to drug misuse. However, researchers do not fully understand the critical need to conduct extensive research on this same problem at the secondary school level because

while they do not see a logical reason to turn to drug abuse, curiosity and peer pressure are the two major factors that inform drug abuse in youth; a habit that, once developed, lasts through university years and, in most cases, a lifetime.

1.5 Significance of the Study

This current research project has the potential to considerably benefit the fields of guidance and counselling. Here, the difficulties of drug usage that have a negative impact on a child’s academic performance at the secondary school level will be listed and discussed, with hopefully realistic solutions proposed.

This will have an impact on the creation of guiding and counselling approaches, as well as how the issue is approached. Sometimes age and environment can influence the tactics used to combat a problem like drug usage.

Second, this information will be valuable to publishers who specialise in children’s literature. The data presented here could have a significant impact on their educational materials and subtle guidance to secondary school students.

1.6 Research Hypothesis

This work is based on the assumption that drug usage is widespread in secondary schools and a significant impediment to learning at this level.

1.7 Scope of Study

As stated in the backdrop to the current research, the focus of this study will be on the incidence of drug usage and its impact on children’s academic performance at the secondary school level.

This means that focus would be paid first to drug misuse problems specific to secondary school kids before treating those shared by other age groups.

Second, the scope of this research will focus on how drug addiction affects a child’s academic performance. The health and sociological repercussions would receive secondary attention.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

A study like this one would necessitate a thorough analysis of the wide pool of students and reading materials, as it is a research that necessitates extensive one-on-one counselling of students from varied topographies, specifically to determine the reasons why they participate in drug addiction.

This means that a large number of surveys would be issued to secondary school students, each with questions meant to explain the problems associated with drug usage and why they engage in it. The limits of this research work are as follows: time constraints and a lack of financial resources to explore broader ground.

1.9 Definition of Terms

Substance Abuse

This refers to the usage of pharmaceutical products for non-medical purposes. This is also referred to as substance abuse. The medicines in question are typically prohibited in the majority of countries.

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Comparison Of The Qualities Of Well Water And Tap Water

Chapter one

1.1 Introduction

An adequate supply of safe drinking water is one of the most important elements for a healthy life, but waterborne infections remain one of the leading causes of death in many regions of the world, particularly among children. It also poses a significant economic barrier in many subsistence economies.

Water can be defined as a material on which all living creatures rely for survival. Water is so important to humans that we cannot function without it.

Drinking water is derived from two fundamental sources: surface waters (such as rivers and reservoirs) and subsurface water. The procedure for producing clean drinking water was created in the nineteenth century, as it became obvious that many deadly epidemics were caused by contaminated water.

All water contains natural contaminants, primarily inorganic contaminants derived from the geological layers through which it flows, as well as different degrees of anthropogenic pollution by microorganisms and chemicals.(Awake magazine, 2001).

Underground water is less prone to pollution than surface waters. There are several probable sources of man-made pollutants, some more significant than others. These are categorised as point and diffuse sources.

Discharges from industrial facilities and sewage treatment plants are point sources, making them easier to identify and control; runoff from agricultural land and hard surfaces, such as roadways, is less evident and difficult to control.

Such a source can cause significant changes in the pollutant load over time. In other words, the chemical, physical, and biological properties of water are critical in determining whether or not it is suitable for home, industrial, or agricultural applications.(Okiemen & Okiemen 2000).

Even while the earth is an effective method for filtering out particulate materials, such as leaves

Soil and Bugs In groundwater, dissolved chemicals can still be found in sufficient concentrations.

To cause issues. Underground water becomes contaminated from the surface. Organic pollutants, such as petroleum hydrocarbons and detergent, can be seen in the environment; organic chemicals break down over time in the environment; however, metals do not and can easily collect and concentrate in biological systems.

There is also the danger of chemical spills from industry and agriculture, as well as pathogen-containing slurries from intensive farming units. In some nations, poorly sited latrines and septic tanks are a substantial source of contamination, particularly for wells. Local industry can also contaminate water sources, especially when chemicals are handled and disposed of improperly.

Nutrient runoff or leaching into slow-flowing or motionless surface waters can cause cyanobacteria and blue-green algae to bloom excessively. Many species produce nuisance compounds that can alter taste and interfere with drinking water treatment.

However, they frequently create poisons that are harmful to human health, especially if treatment options are restricted. If treatment is not optimised, undesirable chemical residues from water treatment can cause pollution and sedimentation in water pipelines.

Contaminated drinking water distribution can result from elements such as iron, which can corrode and release iron oxide, or from contaminants entering the distribution system.

Diffusion through plastic pipes can occur when oil is spilt on the surrounding soil, resulting in taste or odour concerns. Contamination can also occur in consumers’ homes from materials used in plumbing, such as lead or copper, or from the backflow of liquid into the distribution system as a result of incorrect connections.These pollutants can be chemical or microbial.

Drinking water treatment for public water supplies consists of a series of barriers in a treatment train that vary depending on the supply requirements as well as the nature and vulnerability of the source.

These include systems for coagulation and flocculation, as well as filtration and oxidation. Chlorine is the most commonly used oxidising disinfectant.

This provides effective and robust pathogen barriers, as well as a readily quantified residual that can be used as a marker to demonstrate disinfection and as a preservative in water distribution.

National standards or international criteria are used to assess the safety of drinking water sources. The most important of these are the WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality 2.

These are updated on a regular basis and are accompanied by a variety of technical publications outlining many aspects of water safety. The Guidelines are now based on Water Safety Plans, which take a much more proactive approach to ensuring safety from source to tap.

1.2. Justification

Water contamination has been a big issue in both urban and rural areas of Nigeria. All water contains natural contaminants, primarily inorganic contaminants derived from the geological layers through which it flows, as well as different degrees of anthropogenic pollution by microorganisms and chemicals. Underground water is less susceptible to pollution than surface water.

Television Village is a rural hamlet in Kaduna South that is a business area and hence suffers from a high level of pollution from both commercial and residential activity. These pollutants pollute the water supply in this area.

This is because these contaminants are not properly handled and so have the potential to pollute water sources through subsurface water flow. Consuming contaminated water may result in diseases such as diarrhoea, typhoid, and cholera.

The diseases listed above have been a big issue for the residents of Television Village. This project intends to analyse the quality of both tap and well water in this part of Kaduna state, which has never been done before.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

A. AIM

The goals are to compare the characteristics of well water and tap water from Television Village, which is accomplished through the following objectives.

B. Objectives

Heavy metal, chloride, and chromium concentrations, pH, total suspended solids, alkalinity, conductivity, and other parameters were determined in both well and tap water.

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Health Implications And The Problem Of Malaria Among Adult

Abstract

The study evaluates building upkeep practices among landlords in Niger’s central senatorial zone. The study’s specific goals were to determine the importance of building maintenance among landlords in the Niger Central Senatorial District

to identify landlord responsibilities and tenant rights in building maintenance practice in the Niger Central Senatorial District, and to identify the factors influencing building maintenance practice among landlords in the Niger Central Senatorial District, among other things.

Three research questions were developed and used to drive the investigation. The study’s sample population is thirty. The study used a descriptive survey research approach, and the area of study was the Niger central senatorial zone.

The test-retest procedure was used to determine the instrument’s reliability.Based on the findings, recommendations were given, including the necessity for good preventative maintenance through frequent inspections to avoid failures and repairs, which cost more.

There is a need for public awareness on the dangers of poor maintenance and the benefits of good maintenance. Laws requiring all occupants to perform proper maintenance should be enacted, and enforcement organisations should be established.

To avoid using substandard materials as an alternative to the high cost of good quality materials, the government should do study into how the country’s indigenous building materials industry can thrive.

Chapter one

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

Over the years, there has been an increase in the abandonment of residences and infrastructure in Niger’s central Senatorial District, resulting in dilapidation, degradation, and deterioration of buildings and structures.

Recently, there has been a lot of research investigations and analysis that points unequivocally to the fact that certain factors such as client perception, cost of maintenance works, unskilled maintenance technicians, lack of Building Maintenance policy, government legislations not being properly enacted, inability to prepare and follow maintenance schedules are direct causes of neglect that lead to dilapidations and deterioration of building structures, Draft National B

There are other remote causes of lack of maintenance, such as force majeure, cultural issues, the state of the economy, the receding global economic disaster, a lack of time, and general illiteracy among building or structure occupants and facility users.

However, there has been an increase in the importance of building maintenance as a proportion of the construction industry’s output, which comes against the backdrop of mounting pressure on new building activity and a growing awareness of the need to better manage the condition of the nation’s buildings and infrastructure, Draft National Building Maintenance Policy (2011).

However, such maintenance effort occurs in a context that does not result in a completely integrated approach to controlling building performance, and so the full potential of many buildings and infrastructures is never realised.

Buildings and infrastructure facilities are progressively and methodically degrading, dilapidated, and deteriorating throughout the Niger Central Senatorial District, with little or no maintenance programs and activity.

There has been a lot of research on the maintenance and administration of low-income housing, particularly controlled tenancies, but less focus has been placed on landlord maintenance practices, which are critical to the overall management of the properties.

A typical visual perception of the urban metropolis reveals that the majority of the constructed buildings, both private and public, road network, water supply systems, sanitary and drainage systems, transmission poles and electricity lines, sign posts and route location posts are deteriorated and in desperate need of maintenance.

The lack of maintenance of these buildings and infrastructures has a negative impact on the populace, reducing the output of the working class, reducing capacity, minimising time value for achieving goals and objectives

and causing all forms of ill-health and psychological effects, reducing the nation’s economic growth. As a result, this study will assess building maintenance practices among landlords in the Niger Central Senatorial District.

Statement of the Problem

The basic goal of maintaining a building and its environment is to guarantee that the building continues to serve its intended purpose, yields the highest possible return, and provides safety, health, and comfort throughout use.

Housing and infrastructure management necessitates a continuous source of funding for the provision of services such as garbage collection, lawn mowing, street lighting, cleaning and maintenance of ablution blocks, roads and drainage systems

sewer problems, security and caretakers in estates, without which shared facilities deteriorate, necessitating significantly higher renovation costs. The rent paid barely covers the cost of maintaining the residences, let alone the shared facilities.

The failure of landlords to immediately reconfigure buildings created new issues that necessitated a study. As a result, this study, “Appraisal of Building Maintenance Practice among Landlords in Niger Central Senatorial District,”

aims to ensure better building maintenance and extend the life of buildings by highlighting the various challenges of property management and enlightening people on the need for a policy or law governing the maintenance of buildings and infrastructures in Niger Central Senatorial District.

The purpose of the study

The primary goal of the study is to conduct a survey on Appraisal of Building Maintenance Practice among Landlords in Niger Central Senatorial District and provide some basic information about the study below:

1. Determine the relevance of building maintenance among landlords in Niger Central Senatorial District.

2. Learn about landlord obligations and renters’ rights in building maintenance practices in the Niger Central Senatorial District.

3. Determine the factors influencing building maintenance practices among landlords in the Niger Central Senatorial District, e.g.

Significance of the Study

The research investigation was entitled “Appraisal of Building Maintenance Practice among Landlords in Niger Central Senatorial District”. Will contribute in the following areas:

1. It will assist the Niger State Government in developing effective building upkeep policies for landlords in the Niger Central Senatorial District.

2. It would help landlords in the Niger Central Senatorial District become more knowledgeable about building upkeep practices.

3. It will also allow landlords in the Niger Central Senatorial District to have a comprehensive understanding of how to appraise building maintenance practices among themselves.

4. It will also provide tenants with a clear understanding of their maintenance rights in the Niger Central Senate District.

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INTRODUCTION

Immunization is the process by which an individual’s immune system becomes fortified against an agent (known as the immunogen). When this system is exposed to molecules that are foreign to the body, called non-self, it will orchestrate an immune response, and it will also develop the ability to quickly respond to a subsequent encounter because of immunological memory. This is a function of the adaptive immune system. Therefore, by exposing an animal to an immunogen in a controlled way, its body can learn to protect itself; this is called active immunization (Okwor, et al., 2012)

The most important elements of the immune system that are improved by immunization are the T cells, B cells, and the antibodies B cells produce. Memory B cells and memory T cells are responsible for a swift response to a second encounter with a foreign molecule. Passive immunization is direct introduction of these elements into the body, instead of production of these elements by the body itself.

Immunization is done through various techniques, most commonly vaccination. Vaccines against microorganisms that cause diseases can prepare the body’s immune system, thus helping to fight or prevent an infection. The fact that mutations can cause cancercells to produce proteins or other molecules that are known to the body forms the theoretical basis for therapeutic cancer vaccines.

Other molecules can be used for immunization as well, for example in experimental vaccines against nicotine (NicVAX) or the hormone ghrelin in experiments to create an obesity vaccine. Immunizations are definitely less risky and an easier way to become immune to a particular disease by risking a milder form of the disease itself. They are important for both adults and children in that they can protect us from the many diseases out there.

Through the use of immunizations, some infections and diseases have almost completely been eradicated throughout the United States and the World. One example is polio. Thanks to dedicated health care professionals and the parents of children who vaccinated on schedule, polio has been eliminated in the U.S. since 1979 (American Pharmaceutical Association [Apha], 2013).

Polio is still found in other parts of the world so certain people could still be at risk of getting it. This includes those people who have never had the vaccine, those who didn’t receive all doses of the vaccine, or those traveling to areas of the world where polio is still prevalent…  (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Problem Statement

More than 40,000 to 50,000 adult and child death could have been prevented annually in Nigeria if there was a successful routine immunization for certain preventable diseases of which include measles, herpes zoster, tetanus and a host of others (Abdhuraheem, et al., 2011).

The federal government and donor agencies make so much effort and spend close to 50 billion dollars annually in the supply chain of vaccines but when these monies are spent and the purpose for which they are spent are not achieved due to a reduced potency of such vaccines or due to inadequate manpower for vaccine delivery to the target population. It can be said to be an investment in futility… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objectives

The objective of this research is to access the availability and storage of vaccines in community Pharmacies in Delta state.

• Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of this study are outlined as follows; (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter reviews various research studies and literature on the effects and consequences brought about by improper vaccine availability systems and poor vaccine storage and handling to the community. The chapter examines various research studies and reports done locally (Nigeria), regionally (Africa), and globally. The chapter also reviews some common types of vaccines currently available in routine immunization at a healthcare facility for humans.

Global perspective on vaccines availability and management

The study conducted in Bali province Indonesia regarding improving the animal health cold chain and vaccine management indicated that there were urgent needs for improvements in the management of vaccines. Approximately half of the refrigerators were unsuitable for vaccine storage generally in poor condition, the temperature was not monitored.

As a result healthcare workers did not know if the temperature of the refrigerator was within the recommended range at 2-8 ⁰C. In addition, vaccines were arranged inappropriately in the refrigerators and were mixed with other items including expired and partially used vaccine vials. (Vogel, et al, 2011)

In a cross-sectional study that was conducted in Toronto Canada from August to December 1992, staff responsible for vaccine storage were interviewed about their knowledge and practices of vaccine handling and storage. Refrigerators were inspected, fewer than 7 (6%) practices staff answered all questions related to vaccines storage and handling correctly, and only 11 (10%) refrigerator had a thermometer.

One –third of refrigerators had temperatures outside the recommended range of 2 to 8 degrees centigrade. Older refrigerators were more likely to had inappropriate temperature than newer ones. Knowledge and practice of vaccine storage and handling were often inadequate in primary care physician’s offices (Yuan, et al, 1995)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

METHODOLOGY

Study Area and Population

The study was conducted in Delta state. Delta state is estimated to have 203 public health facilities (MOHSW, 2010). The study units were community pharmacies and the study populations were people selected for an interview at the community pharmacies in the region.

Study Design

It was a cross-sectional survey. Staff responsible for vaccine availability and management was interviewed about their knowledge and practices of vaccine availability, handling, and storage. Refrigerators and freezers were inspected and temperature documented from freezer tags and observation of vaccine storage conditions… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter provides a detailed analysis of the data collected from the field.  It starts by analyzing data according to the research questions which guided this study. Various nonparametric tests were used at various stages of data analysis.

Response Rate

Of the selected 40 public health facilities and 5 warehouses (i.e. district hospitals, health centers, and dispensaries). All 40 public health facilities and 5 warehouses respondents agreed and participated in the study. Of the selected 90 people for interviewees only 84 contacted, missing was due to inadequate health workers at facility level working at vaccination area.  The overall response rate of the interview that was conducted is 94.7%, however, minor discrepancies in some respondents were observed due to respondents’ inability to provide answers to some of the questions caused by lack of training and less experienced in the vaccination area. Those cases were considered as missing values in the analysis.

Availability of vaccines at the selected community pharmacies

This was done during visiting the facility in the survey and the availability of six key vaccines used in routine Immunization was used as tracer vaccines. The availability of vaccines from 40 contacted community pharmacies and 5 vaccine stores were summarized in the tables below

Table 1: Availability of vaccines at Community pharmacies level on a day of visiting N=40

From table 1: above the least available vaccine at community pharmacies was Rabies vaccine (15%; n=40). Mean availability of vaccines at community pharmacies level is 82% & median is 95%… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

 Average Stock out Duration at the Community Pharmacies

Average stock out duration of six tracer vaccines was determined as a means of finding out if vaccines were available at all levels of community pharmacies for the past ten months. The number of days out of stock was calculated within ten months retrospectively.

Figure 4: Average stock-out days of vaccines between community pharmacies and district vaccine stores

The study shows that the average stock out days of vaccines between community pharmacies and district… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusions

Managing availability system at public health facilities is highly associated with many challenges that cannot be sorted out by just one player but rather all players involved in the vaccines availability system such as MSD, Regional Vaccine Store, District Vaccine Store, district councils authorities and the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare at large.

The study has identified about 8 main challenges that hinder effective availability system of vaccine; these include unreliable/inadequate vehicles for the availability of vaccines to public community pharmacies, availability from a regional level to the district level and district level to community pharmacies. Stockout condition  the study reveals average stock out days was high at the lower health facility level as compared to the…. (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Recommendations

The following are recommendation in response to the above challenges revealed by the study:

• MOHSW/EPI –Need to involve pharmaceutical personnel in the supply chain of vaccines because the study reveals no involvement of pharmaceutical personnel in this programme.
• Pharmacists are custodian in medicines once involved in the programme it’s our hope the problems of poor storage practices, poor quantification of need and storing vaccines out of recommended temperature range can be reduced and controlled under his/ her supervision… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REFERENCES:

Bonhoeffer, J., Heinnger, U., (2007). ―Adverse events following immunization perception and evidence‖ curr opin infect Dis 20(3): 237-46.

Brudon, P., Rainhorn, J.D., Reich, M., (1994). Indicators for monitoring national drug policies.

Euro Health Group, (2007). Nigeria Drug Tracking Study.

Grobowsky, M., et al, (2005). Ghana and Zambia: Achieving equity in availability of Insecticide Treated Bed nets through links with measles vaccination campaign.

Immune Australia website http:// Immunise.health gov.au/vaccine storage html

Indonesia MOA (2011). Cold chain and Vaccine management Assessment for Animal vaccination program in Bali Province.

Management Sciences for Health (MSH), 1997: Managing Drug Supply, 2^nd Edition, Kumarian Press, Connecticut, USA. Pg 317-20,332,347-48,366-68.

MSH, (1995). Rapid pharmaceutical assessment — An indicator-based approach. Washington DC: MSH.

Meri, S., Jorden, M., Jarva, H., (December 2008). ―Microbial complement inhibitors as vaccines‖ vaccine 26 suppl 8, 1113-7.

MOHSW (2008). Immunization coverage survey.

MOHSW (2008). In-depth Assessment of the Medicines Supply System in Nigeria Report).

MOHSW (2010). Nigeria Mainland EPI Review Pg 5, 16, 22.

MOHSW (2009). Vaccine Management Assessments.

National Vaccine Storage guidelines http//www.ag.gov.au/cca.

Stern, A.M., Markel, H., (2005). The history of vaccines & immunization: Health Aff. 24(3) 611-21

Strive FOR five, (2005).National Vaccines Storage guidelines. Retrieved April 2005, from http//www.ag.gvr au/cca.

Subramanyam, K., et al (1989). Vaccine Availability: an operations research study.

Van Sant J.E., (2008). ―The vaccinator: smallpox, medical knowledge, and the opening of Japan‖ JHist Med Allied Sci, 62(2) 276-9.

WHO, 1997. Comparative analysis of national drug policies. Report of second workshop. Geneva: DAP/97.6.

WHO Report, (2008). Global pandemic influenza action plan to increase vaccine supply. Retrieved April 2009, from www.who.int/vaccine documents/

WHO (2008), Health Metrics Network, http/www.healthmetricsnetwork.org.

WHO (2005), Vaccine management assessment. Retrieved April 2005, from www.who.int/ Vaccine-documents http//www.ag.gvr.au/cca

Yuan, L., et al (July 1995).Vaccine storage and handling. Knowledge and practice in primary care physicians’ officers. 41, 1169-76.

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Role Of Plants In The Treatment Of Diseases Caused By Micro-Organisms

Chapter one

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

1.1.1 Phyllanthus

This is a genus in the family Euphorbiaceae. It first appeared in Central and Southern India in the 18th century. It is known as bring me seed, stone-breaker, windbreaker, gulf leaf flower, or gala of wind (Bharatiya 1992).

The Euphorbiaceae family has approximately 300 genera and 5,000 species worldwide. Phyllantus is a genus that belongs to this huge family. Phyllantus comprises approximately 750-800 species that live in tropical and subtropical climates.

Green medicine is safer and more reliable than expensive synthetic medications, which can have negative side effects (Joseph and Raj, 2010). Humans have historically used medicinal plants to treat ailments.

Screening molecules extracted from plants for pharmacological action has resulted in the identification of numerous medicinal medicines.

Over 50% of all current chemical medications are derived from natural plant products, making them essential in pharmaceutical drug research programs (Burton et al 1983).

1.1.2 Phyllanthus amarus (P. amarus)

P. amarus is an erect annual plant that grows to be no taller than one and a half feet, with little leaves and yellow flowers. It is a diverse medicinal plant that has gained global recognition (Srividiya and Perival, 1995).

P. amarus has been used in herbal therapy to treat jaundice, diabetes, otitis, diarrhoea, oedema, skin ulcers, gastrointestinal disorders, and to inhibit DNA polymerase during hepatitis B virus reproduction (Oluwafemi and Debiri, 2008).

In Nigeria, it is termed “Oyomokeisoamankedem” in Efik, “Iyin Olobe” in Yoruba, and “Ebebenizo” in Bini (Etta, 2008). It is utilised in traditional medicine for its hepatoprotective, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial effects (Adeneye et al., 2006).

The plant is also used to heal stomach issues, skin ailments, and colds (Kokwaro, 1976; Iwu, 1993). It possesses antidiarrheal properties (Odetola and Akojenu, 2000).

It has been shown to have antiviral action against the hepatitis B virus (Thyagarajan et al; 1988, Wang et al; 1995), anticarcinogenic (Joy and Kuttan, 1998), antimutagenic (Joy and Kuttan, 1998), and antiplasmodial properties (Soh et al. 2009).

Plants contain a variety of components, some of which can be hazardous. This toxicity has been documented in plants (Santox et al., 1995; Shaw et al., 1997; Kaplowitz, 1997). P. amarus has been classed as a plant with a modest potential for toxicity, with an LD50 of 2000mg/kg 1day (Krithika and Verma 2009).

1.1.3 Phyllantus Niruri (P. niruri)

P. niruri is also known as “Chanca piedra” or stonebreaker. It belonged to the Euphorbiaceae family. P. niruri is similar to P. amarus. It is a widely distributed tropical plant that grows 40-70cm tall (Chukwuma, 2012).

In Nigeria, it is known as enyikwonwa and ngwu in Ibo, Oyokeso amanke edem in Efik, geeron-tsemtsaayee in Hausa, and ehin olobe and yin-olobe in Yoruba (Chukwuma, 2012).

Although P. niruri is seen as a nuisance weed by formers, it is an important medicinal plant. (Oudhia and Tripathi, 2002), and is well-regarded in both the Ayurvedic and Unani medical systems. It has recently gained interest from researchers due to its hepatoprotective (ability to prevent liver damage) characteristics.

There is no effective specific medication for viral Hepatitis, although P. niruri has demonstrated clinical efficacy in viral Hepatitis B (Paranjape, 2001).

P. niruri is an annual plant with an angular stem and numerous distichous, elliptic-oblong leaves. blooms are yellow and abundant; monoecious, with 1-3 staminate blooms and a single pistillate flower borne axillary.

Fruit capsules are very tiny, globose, and smooth, with three-gonous seeds that are longitudinally ribbed on their back. The seed to seed cycle lasts two to four weeks (Caius 1986; Agharkar 1991).

Its roots, leaves, fruits, milky fluid, and entire plant are used as medicine. According to the Ayurvedic system of medicine, it is caustic, cooling, aleixipharmic, and beneficial in thirst, bronchitis, leprosy, anaemia, urinary distention, anuria, boiliousness, asthma, hiccups, and as a diuretic.

According to the Unani system of medicine, it is stomachic, helpful for ulcers, and beneficial in Chromic dysentery. Fruits can treat tubercular ulcers, wounds, sores, scabies, and ringworm (Agharkar 1991; Krishanamurty 1993). The fresh root is thought to be an effective treatment for jaundice.

It is widely used to treat snake bites throughout India. Rastogi and Mehrotra (1991) extracted the active chemicals phyllanthin and hypophyllanthim, as well as nirtetralin and phyltetralin, from the leaves

. The plant serves as a fish poison. In many places of India, particularly in the deserts, the roots mixed with Commiphora mukul are fed to camels to treat indigestion. The decoction of leaves and stems is used to dye cotton black (Singh et al., 1996).

P. niruri is a medicinal plant used to cure malaria in India and Nigeria. P. niruri has been traditionally used to cure a variety of ailments, including kidney stones, gastrointestinal disturbances, cough, hepatitis, gonorrhoea, fever, and malaria.

It has also been shown to have hypoglycemia activity (Hukuri et al; 1988), angiotension converting enzyme inhibition (Ueno et al; 1988), lipid-lowering activity (Khanna et al; 2002), anti-HIV activity (Qian cutron et al; 1996), and anti-cancer activity (Giridharan et al; 2002).

1.2 Aim and Objectives of the study

The purpose of this study is to determine which of the plants listed above is more beneficial in the treatment of diseases caused by microorganisms due to the natural compounds found in them.

The precise objectives include:

a. Determine the antibacterial action of P. amarus and P. niruri.

b. Determine the antifungal activity of P. amarus and P. niruri.

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