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Treatment Of Infertility Using Naturopathic Approach

ABSTRACT

Approximately 200 million women in underdeveloped countries have unmet contraception needs. Due to unmet contraceptive needs, 20 million women worldwide have unsafe abortions each year. The overall goal of the study was to assess the reproductive therapy qualities of a naturopathic method in female Winstar rats.

The study recorded naturopathic treatments for reproductive dysfunctions, as well as the pharmacological efficacy, phytochemical substances, extract effect on reproductive parameters, reproductive hormonal profile, and ovarian and uterine histomorphology of the selected plants.

An ethnobotanical survey was conducted utilising questionnaires and focus group discussions. In total, 80 herbalists were interviewed. The pharmacological efficacy and phytochemical components of the two most commonly referenced plants, Croton menyharthi and Uvariodendron kirkii, were determined.

The antifertility efficacy of the two plants on mating success, fertility index, gestation length, litter size, and body weight was assessed using three treatment regimens on normal-cyclic female winstar rats aged 50-60 days.

Forty-eight plant species from 40 genera and 29 families were identified as useful for the treatment of pregnancy-related problems, menstrual disorders, infertility, fibroids, and as fertility regulators.

Thirteen herbs (27.08%) were used to cure infertility, while eleven (22.92%) were utilised to regulate female fertility. Uvariodendron kirkii and Croton menyharthii caused severe disruptions in the oestrus cycle in rats.

Plant extracts significantly lengthened metestrus (P<0.01) and diestrus (P<0.001) phases compared to the control. Oestrus and proestrus phases showed significant declines (P<0.05). The plant extracts resulted in a dose-dependent substantial drop in fertility index and implantation index.

Croton menyharthii at 500mg/kg and Uvariodendron kirkii at 800mg/kg increased gestation length significantly (P<0.05) compared to the control (22 ± 1). Uvariodendron kirkii and Croton menyharthii aqueous extracts significantly reduced litter size in groups 1 and 3 at both dose levels as compared to the negative control. Both plant extracts, however, caused no significant reduction in litter size in group 2 at either dose level.

Chapter one

INTRODUCTION

Women’s reproductive health has improved dramatically in the developing world, with an increase in the usage of traditional fertility-regulating measures observed. Nonetheless, many women in remote areas do not have access to information, supplies, or services that could help them avoid unwanted births and plan the number and timing of intended pregnancies.

Globally, approximately 137 million women have an unmet need for contraception (Gill et al., 2007), and this unmet need is especially significant in Sub-Saharan Africa, where contraception use remains low due to a general lack of access to contraceptive choices (Adebisi and Bello, 2011).

Unintended pregnancy is a combination of unwanted and mistimed pregnancies. Many married women in developing countries do not have access to their preferred contraceptive method for spacing or limiting family size, and the options are even more limited for unmarried women and adolescents, who have limited access to reproductive health information and counselling and are frequently denied contraceptive services.

Some of the hurdles to contraception usage in developing nations include fear of side effects and health issues, insufficient access to reproductive health information and services, religious views, fear of societal condemnation, opposition from spouses and family, and cost, which is an issue for the poor.

The intense desire to control fertility, along with a lack of access to effective contraception, results in the highest number of unwanted pregnancies, which leads to unsafe abortions.

Globally, 205 million pregnancies are unplanned, and roughly 20 million unsafe abortions are performed annually, resulting in a 13% maternal death rate. 97% of these are dangerous.

Abortions occur in impoverished nations (Sedgh and Henshaw, 2010), and 67,000 women die.

yearly due to unsafe abortions (Ahman and Shah, 2007). According to a Nigerian health survey conducted from 2008 to 2009, 43% of births in the previous five years were reported as unwanted or mistimed by women (Nigeria Demographic Health Survey 2008/09)

and a total of 465,000 unsafe abortions were reportedly procured, with 266 out of 100 000 women dying each year as a result of unsafe abortions, the majority of which were caused by unintended pregnancy (Izugbara et al., 2013).

There is a disparity between actual and desired family size, which leads to unexpected pregnancies. Sixty-six percent of unwanted pregnancies occur among women who do not use any form of contraception. When used correctly, modern contraceptives are both safe and effective.

Many steroidal and non-steroidal substances have been utilised as contraceptives and anti-ovulatory medicines to regulate fertility. The medications, while effective anti-fertility treatments, are not without negative effects.

Skilled health care workers are frequently unavailable in resource-limited situations, therefore methods that allow for non-medical staff delivery may expand access to contraception.

The use of naturopathic techniques for primary healthcare needs has recently received considerable interest, led by the World Health Organisation (WHO).

This curiosity has resulted in greater study into traditional remedies. To address the unmet contraceptive need in Oyo, this study was conducted to validate the anti-fertility potential of Croton menyhathii and Uvariodendron kirkii, which are traditionally taken by women in Oyo. A naturopathic approach’s contraceptive qualities can be attributed to hormonal disturbance of the hypothalamic-pituitary gonadal axis.

1.2 Overall Objective

The overarching goal of the study was to assess fertility treatment in female Winstar rats utilising a naturopathic method.

1.2.1: Specific Objectives

To identify and document naturopathic treatments utilised by Traditional Medicinal Practitioners (TMPs) for reproductive health care in Oyo State, with a focus on female fertility.

Evaluate the anti-fertility efficacy of the two chosen plant extracts on female rat reproductive

Assess the impact of the two plant extracts on the histomorphology of the ovaries.

Determine the effect of the two plant extracts on reproductive hormones

Determine the acute toxicity and phytochemical composition of the two plants.

1.3 Null Hypothesis

Croton menyharthii and Uvariodendron kirkii plants do not have fertility-regulating properties.

1.4 Justification.

Reproductive disorders and ailments account for 18% of the worldwide disease burden among women of reproductive age and are the leading cause of maternal mortality in underdeveloped countries (WHO, 2003). Female reproductive problems include pregnancy and its complications, fertility disorders, and menstruation complications.

TMPs by definition do not keep records, and the majority of their information is passed down verbally from generation to generation (Giday et al., 2010). Thus, it is necessary not only to capture indigenous knowledge, but also to investigate the plants in order to give convincing data to support herbalists’ therapeutic efficacy claims (Sofowora, 1993).

In Oyo State (Figure 1), TMPs are commonly consulted due to their extensive indigenous medicinal knowledge base (Kaingu et al., 2011), a tradition that has continued in many rural areas due to inequitable health care delivery.

In Nigeria, 75% of health facilities and professionals are located in cities (WHO, 2005). The national doctor-patient ratio is 1:20,000, but in Oyo State, which has 57 health facilities and a population of 240075 (Nigeria population and housing census report, 2009), the doctor-patient ratio is 1:95,500, indicating a serious shortage of both health facilities and staff in the state (Oyo District Strategic Plan, 2005-2010).

On the other hand, the ratio of TMPs to patients is 1: 987 (Nigeria Population and Housing Census Report, 2009), indicating that TMPs are more widely available.

Locals are treated 90% of the time by clinical officers, who refer emergency cases to Malindi District Hospital, 90 kilometres away. In general, the health industry, especially reproductive health, has numerous obstacles.

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Microbial Evaluation Of Ram Milk From A Diary Farm

ABSTRACT

Twenty samples of raw milk from a dairy farm (Emene fulani cattle rearers) were microbially evaluated using five methods: direct microcopies count, nutrient agar count, blood agar count, Mac conkey agar count (celiforms only), and acid fast bacilli staring to detect the presence of the Tubercle bacillus.

The bacterial types were as follows: Direct microscopic counts varied from 9.0x 105 to 9.5 x 107. Nutrient agar counts ranged from 9.0x 104 to 8.0x 105. Blood agar counts ranged from 7.0x 104 to 9.8×10, while Mac Country agar numbers ranged from 5.0x 102 to 5.0 x 10.

The acid fast bacilli staring revealed no bacilli, indicating the absence of tubercles. The gramme staring results show single chains of gramme positive and gramme negative bacilli, which are typical of staphylococcus spp, streptococcus spp, lactobacillus spp, and coliform.

It is recommended that milk maids and milk processors try to cleanse the udder of the cow, sterilise their equipment and containers, and improve their personal hygiene during milk collecting.

These would help to improve the quality of products in our milk businesses as well as the health of humans, particularly Fulani cattle rearers who drink without pasteurisation.

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Impact Of Social Networking Site On Employee Performance

Chapter one

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background.

Social networking is causing dramatic or dynamic changes in the environment, but it is clear that it is doing so. Social networking is an online means of connection that allows people to develop relationships, share ideas, communicate information, and unite society through sentimental streams.

In today’s fast-paced world, social networking is rapidly expanding. People use social networks to vent their human feelings. People link to LinkedIn for professional purposes, Facebook and MySpace for personal reasons, Twitter for social networking, and Personalised Blogs for personal views and perspectives. The motivation for using social networks can vary, but the ultimate rationale of connecting is to develop social contacts and share (Ehrlich, 2011).

Social networking is not only for the youthful generation. It appeals to people of all ages and generations. The way we use and respond to social networks is neither good nor evil; it is simply different.

Using and connecting to social networks has become an integral part of everyone’s daily lives. People no longer ask for email addresses or mobile numbers; instead, they ask each other for their social network IDs to maintain long-term interactions (Avalos, S. 2011).

Every organisation uses social networking platforms for professional purposes such as developing customer relationships. As a result, it has become necessary for organisations to create workforces that are responsive to changing circumstances. Employee performance determines an organization’s production and profitability, and its employees have a strong connection to social networks.

In other ways, social networks generate risks, opportunities, threats, weaknesses, and strengths for businesses. Risk in the sense that social networks are real-time communication mediums, allowing organisations to communicate and spread information in real time that they may not wish to share with people outside of the organisation.

Opportunity in the context of a competitor’s employee sharing knowledge about a future plan on a social media platform that can be used for the organization’s benefit. Organisations may face a threat if their staff communicate internal company information on social media platforms that competitors can use.

Social networking can be an organization’s vulnerability if it has a negative impact on productivity. Similarly, social networking becomes a strength for organisations when it is utilised to develop strong relationships with employees, direct them in the right direction, collect information about employee behaviour, and teach them (Flynn, 2011).

Social networking affects all areas of the economy by influencing employee skills, productivity, qualification/knowledge, and motivation. Organisations use social networking to strengthen employer-employee relationships by improving employees’ skills, productivity, motivation, and knowledge.

Organisations evaluate their personnel and manage their contributions to maintain a positive image through social networking. Some organisations direct their staff to use social media ethically while representing the organisation.

To accomplish all of this, organisations are developing policies surrounding the use of social networking (Flynn, 2011); yet, it can be stated that social networking has a significant impact on employee performance in terms of skills, productivity, knowledge and motivation.

Guarantee Trust Bank plc was established in 1990 as a limited liability company permitted to provide commercial and other banking services to the Nigerian general public. The bank began operations in February 1991 and has since evolved to be one of Nigeria’s most renowned and service-focused banks (GTB, 2015).

Guarantee Trust Bank plc became a publicly traded corporation in September 1996, and it won the Nigerian Stock Exchange President’s Merit award that year, as well as in 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2009.

The Bank was awarded a universal banking licence in February 2002, and the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) appointed it as a settlement bank in 2003. GT Bank plc operates 217 branches, 17 Cash Centres, 18 e-Branches, 23 GT Express locations, and over 1141 ATMs throughout Nigeria.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Some studies claim that using social networking sites makes employees happier and thus more productive (AT&T, 2008; Bennett et al., 2010; Leidner et al., 2010; Li & Bernoff, 2008; Patel & Jasani, 2010)

while others consider social networking site use to be a reason for decreased productivity because it can waste time and be addictive (Accountemps, 2010; Nucleus, 2009; O’Murchu et al., 2004; Rooksby et al., 2009; Shepherd, 2011; Wavecrest, 2006).

These studies that argue that using social networking sites reduces productivity in the workplace focused solely on the time wasted as a result of social networking site use and ignored potential indirect benefits such as increased job satisfaction, higher organisational commitment, lower absenteeism, higher retention rates, higher innovative behaviour, and increased productivity.

Studies claiming that the usage of social networking sites in the workplace adds value to organisations failed to scientifically quantify the positive benefits of social networking site use on work-related outcomes.

This study attempts to resolve this controversy by empirically studying the direct and mediating effects of job satisfaction, organisational commitment, absenteeism, turnover intention, and innovative behaviour on the relationship between the intensity of social networking site use and job performance.

1.3. Objective of the Research

The study’s broad purpose is to assess the impact of social networking sites on employee performance, while the specific objectives are as follows:

To determine the effect of social networking sites on employee performance.

To investigate the impact of social networking websites on the privacy and security of an organization’s information.

To assess the potential benefits of social networking sites for business in an organisation.

1.4. Research Questions.

What is the effect of social networking sites on employee performance?

What influence do social networking sites have on the privacy and security of an organization’s information?

What are the potential benefits of using a social networking site for business in an organisation?

1.5. Significance of the Study

The impact of social networking site use in the workplace on employee performance is significant for a variety of reasons. First, professionals in charge of human resource departments will benefit from understanding the relationships revealed by this research.

Understanding the relationships between employee performance and productivity, job satisfaction, organisational commitment, absenteeism, turnover intention, innovative behaviour, and job performance can help organisations determine whether to allow or prohibit the use of social networking sites in the workplace.

Organisations are looking for ways to boost workplace productivity. If the use of social networking sites is one of these methods, organisations will be able to add it to their arsenal of practices for improving job satisfaction, organisational commitment, absenteeism, turnover intention, innovative behaviour, and, ultimately, job performance.

Second, this study adds to the existing literature on social networking, employee performance, job satisfaction, organisational commitment, absenteeism, turnover intention, innovative behaviour, and job performance.

The study’s findings will demonstrate whether the idea that happy workers perform harder is valid in the context of workplace social networking site use.

1.6. Scope and limitations of the study

The study’s focus is on the impact of social network sites on employee performance. Data from this research will be used to determine and establish whether the use of social network sites reduces or increases productivity.

Because of the nature and subject of the study, only educated professionals will be included in the category of workers who are more likely to use the internet as part of their job and, during this course, utilise social networking sites as a side hobby.

Workers may be exposed to difficulties such as network security, cybercrime, pornography, internet marketing, and advertisement, and this study will touch on all of these areas while reviewing the prior literature on the subject.

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Relevance Of Blood Culture To The Diagnosis And Treatment Of Septicemia

ABSTRACT

A septicaemia study was carried out in Enugu metropolis to assess the role of blood culture in the diagnosis and management of this disease. The study included 350 children and adults of both sexes aged one day to 70 years with clinical characteristics suggestive of septicaemia who were admitted to the University of Nigeria Teaching Hospitals (UNTH) in Enugu.

Their blood samples were planted into thioglycolate and glucose broths and incubated at 37 degrees Celsius for 7 days. Subcultures were performed at 1, 2, 3, 4, and 7 days intervals.

Growth (positivity) in the broths was determined using standard diagnostic methods such as macroscopy (visualisation), Gramme filming (microscopy), and culture.

The collected bacterial isolates were tested for antibiotic susceptibility in vitro using the disc diffusion method. The aetiology was determined in 104 out of 350 individuals, giving a 29.7% incidence.

The difference in prevalence between age groups was statistically significant (P < 0.01). Males (59/350, 16.86%) appeared to be more prone to septicaemia than females (45/350, 12.9%) across all age categories.

This variance was not statistically significant (P > 0.01). Monomicrobial septicaemia was more prevalent (91.3%) than polymicrobial septicaemia (8.65%). Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli accounted for 33.3%.

The majority of the offensive microorganisms (93.3%) were facultative anaerobes, with only a few being stringent aerobes (7.69%) and strict anaerobes (1.92%).

The identified anaerobes were Peptostreptococcus sp. (1%) and Bacteroidesfragilis (1%). The bacterial isolates’ in vitro antibiotic susceptibility ranged between 78.9 and 92.9% for vancomycin, zinnat, peflacin, and fortum.

However, they were resistant to penicillin, ampicillin, tetracycline, and septrin to the extent of 60-90 percent. This study confirmed the diverse nature of bacterial aetiologies of septicaemia in Enugu metropolis; the need for the use of thioglycolate broths, first subcultures on or before 24 h instead of starting off after 48 h of incubation, complementary application of macroscopy

Gramme filming, and culture including antibiotic susceptibility test as an integral part of diagnosis and treatment of septicaemia is hereby advocated, most especially in the developing countries of the
Chapter one

1.0 Introduction

Blood is typically sterile in healthy people. It is the primary transport mechanism that connects all sections of the body. It can transport bacteria as well as oxygen, food items, waste products, and other substances throughout the body.

However, it lacks a normal flora, and the presence of microorganisms suggests a failure of the defence systems to keep it sterile. In many circumstances, such a failure is temporary and has no clinical significance, but in others, it is severe and life-threatening.

Lymphoid tissue is an important aspect of the defence system since it acts as a filter to capture potentially invasive diseases and is home to lymphocytes, on which immunity is strongly dependent.

This filter system, however, is susceptible to clinically severe infections caused by captured pathogens and serves as the principal target for several infection factors (Douglas et al., 1981). Many illnesses involve the blood, lymphatic system, and heart, allowing us to detect the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream.

Several authors have described bacteraemia following abscess incision, tonsillectomy, and tooth extraction (Fischer et al., 1941, Murry et al., 1941). According to Robert et al. (1997), bacteraemia is a transitory condition in which bacteria in the blood are normally removed from the vascular system by the reticuloendothelial system with no detrimental consequence, but septicaemia occurs in hosts with low immunity.

The word septicaemia is commonly used to describe severe bacteraemic infections or a state in which the blood acts as both a site of bacteria multiplication and a way of transporting the infectious agent from one location to another.

Septic shock is a severe febrile episode characterised by chills, fever, malaise, tachycardia, mental confusion, hyperventilation and toxicity, hypotension (drop in blood pressure), and prostration caused by circulating bacteria multiplying faster than phagocytes can remove them. Complications include DIC and acute renal failure (Shanson, 1999).

The death rate ranges from 15% to 35%, depending on age, underlying condition, and treatment (Shamson, 1998). It is critical to detect septicaemia quickly and treat it as soon as possible based on the identification of the most likely causing pathogen.

Bacterial septicaemias are caused by a diverse range of bacteria that vary by location. Many studies on septicaemia in Nigeria have been conducted on neonates and children, as well as retrospectively (Dawodu et al., 1980), and there is thus a scarcity of information on prospective studies on septiceamia in various strata of Nigeria society.

1.1 Blood Culture.

This is a microbiologic blood culture used to detect infections as they spread through the bloodstream. One of these diseases is septicaemia. This blood culture is achievable because the bloodstream is often a sterile environment, and it is performed as part of a laboratory test to detect bacteria or other microbes in a blood sample. Most cultures test for bacteria. A culture can be performed on a sample of blood, tissue, stool, urine, or other bodily fluid.

When a patient exhibits signs or symptoms of a systemic infection, blood culture findings can confirm the presence of an infection and identify the type(s) of microorganism responsible for the infection.

A excellent example is when blood tests reveal the causative organisms in neonatal epiglottitis, sepsis, severe pneumonia, puerperal fever, and fever of unclear origin. However, negative growths do not rule out infection.

The usual dangers of venipuncture, as well as the occurrence of false positive results in around 3% of cases, can result in incorrect therapy (Madeo et al., 2003).

1.2 SEPTICAEMIA

Septicaemia is also known as blood poisoning, bacteremia, or sepsis, and while each of these phrases may not be totally correct, scientists frequently use them interchangeably. Sepsis is not restricted to the bloodstream; it can affect the entire body, including the organs.

Septicaemia (also known as blood poisoning) is a bacterial infection of the blood, although sepsis can be caused by viral or fungal infections.

Septicaemia, often known as Sepsis, is a disorder in which the body’s response to infection damages its own tissues and organs (Deutschman and Tracey, 2014).Fever, increased heart rate, increased breathing rate, and confusion are some of the most common signs and symptoms.

There may also be infection-specific symptoms, such as a cough with pneumonia or painful urination with a kidney infection. According to Martí-Carvajal et al. (2012), individuals with a weaker immune system, the very young, elderly, or those with a weakened immune system may not experience symptoms of an illness and may have a normal or low body temperature.

Severe sepsis is defined as sepsis resulting in impaired organ function or inadequate blood flow. limited blood pressure, high blood lactate levels, or limited urine output might all indicate insufficient blood flow.

Septic shock is defined as low blood pressure caused by sepsis that persists despite receiving enough intravenous fluids (Dellinger et al., 2013).

Sepsis is caused by an immunological response to an infection (Jui, 2011; Deutschman and Tracey, 2014). The infection is most usually bacterial, although it can also come from fungi, viruses, or parasites (Jui, 2011). Primary infections are commonly found in the lungs, brain, urinary tract, skin, and abdominal organs.

Young or old age, a compromised immune system caused by cancer or diabetes, and serious trauma or burns are also risk factors (CDC, 2014). The diagnosis is based on the presence of at least two systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) criteria associated with a suspected infection.

Blood cultures are encouraged before starting antibiotics; however, blood infection is not required for diagnosis (Jui, 2011). Medical imaging should be performed to determine the possible site of infection (Patel and Baulk, 2012).

Other possible causes of similar signs and symptoms include allergy, adrenal insufficiency, low blood volume, heart failure, and pulmonary embolism (Jui, 2011).

1.3 Objectives of the Research

The objectives of this study are to:

Determine the role of blood culture in the diagnosis and management of septicaemia.

Compare the prevalence of Gramme positive and Gramme negative microorganisms in people with culture-proven septicaemia.

Determine whether males or females are more prone to septicaemia.

1.4 Justification.

To allow for optimal targeted antimicrobial therapy, it is critical to accurately diagnose bloodstream infections and thoroughly examine infecting microorganisms, their antimicrobial susceptibilities, and potential primary sources of infection.

Blood cultures and microbiological analysis are critical for the diagnosis and management of septicaemia.Blood culture is critical for the early diagnosis and treatment of patients with septicaemia, as survival is dependent on early detection and adequate empirical antimicrobial therapy.

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Survey Of Divorce Among Women And It’S Effects On Children’S Academic Achievement

Chapter One:

Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

Man is a creature that does not survive alone; he does not live in isolation, but rather in relationship with those around him. This concept of coexistence necessitates cooperation, which is reflected in all of humanity’s organisations.

The family is an institution. Since the commencement of marriage, which was prescribed by nature, it has had a significant impact on society, both positively and adversely, depending largely on the players.

Marriage, as described by the Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English, is a legal union of a man and a woman as husband and wife, which is the state of being married. On the other hand, marriage is a fundamental institution in any culture.

The state and the church both strongly support it. It is a cornerstone of every society that allows man and woman’s companionship and sex interaction to be fully expressed. It is through it that children’s regeneration continues.

According to Christian religious beliefs, the marriage institution dates back to the creation of man, as described in Genesis when God said, “Let us make man in his image after our own likeness.”

And God said, “It is not good for man to be alone; I will make a help mate for him,” so he created a woman and brought her into man to be his wife. God established marriage.

Most societies have historically encouraged marriage and regarded married people as having high status. Parents, particularly dads, have an active role in selecting marriage partners for their offspring (male and female), particularly females. This is because women marry not only their husbands, but their entire extended families.

They do not participate because the woman’s future is inextricably linked to her decision, and the woman frequently lies in order to keep their judgement. The parents have lived longer and seen more thoroughly or in more days than their children because they know the individuals and the families into which the girl is going because the couple must marry with the complete permission of their families or they would split swiftly and painfully.

The husband’s and wife’s roles were defined, with the husband serving as the wing’s guardian and line of connection with the outside world. The wife’s task was to ensure the well-being of the family and household, and society was willing to accept little or no responsibility for the level of tension and misery. In certain aspects, rigidity may have defined boundaries.

African society (Oredo is a great example) is extremely complex, at least spiritually. Many things happen in the aquatic world, including matchmaking and marriage, where they take into account age, closeness, social class, education, physical character, family influence, and care to ensure the marriage’s success.

Today, the ideal of arranged marriage appears to be out of date, and recently avoided Asian immigrants who continue to observe this tradition are viewed as archaic and out of step with their peers.

However, it has numerous positives, one of which is a higher tolerance for disharmony because the unhappy spouse does not feel the need for self-criticism and may shift the blame for the dissatisfaction onto the parent who made a poor decision.

According to Lyn Gill (1980), a Gird for unhappiness and mentally sick fury scene from divorce remarked that “the generation ago, divorce was so scandalous and out of the ordinary that it was scarcely even conventional misery within a respectable marriage.”

According to Stars, the Rockefellers divorced because they no longer cared about what others thought of them and were powerful enough to fuel the publicity. Even still, divorce left an indelible imprint on some.

It is documented that divorce harmed Aldai-Stevenson’s presidential campaign in the 1960s. According to Nita Kolen (1981), “society up to today maintains that the main shadows of a husband are security, respect, and pride for the women.”

However, despite all of the benefits of marriage, sociologists have discovered, to their dismay, that there are six (6) primary types of family disorganisation, with divorce being a major contributor.

Individual factors would include the various physical, intellectual, and personality components that come into play whenever two or more people interact.

The list of individual factors appears to be endless, including social incompatibility, personality issues, infidelity, excessive drinking, financial difficulties, in-law relationships, and so on.

One or more studies, for example, show that the following are related with divorce:

1. Low socioeconomic status.

2. Couple’s divorce

3. Early age of marriage.

4. Certain types of cross-clan marriage.

5. Pre-marital pregnancy.

6. Growing up in broken homes.

However, divorce is a serious social misdemeanour that is agonising, questionable, and goes against the moral fibre; however, divorce rates continue to rise, and couples’ split acts have an impact on their siblings’ scholastic accomplishment.

They use the wrong approach to solving the mother problem. These divorces hide behind the argument that marriage has always been a changing, transitory arrangement. “Till death do us part” used to be a reasonable judgement of the registrar in the local government secretariat for completing the marriage ceremony.

After discussing all of the difficulties raised above, it is critical that we consider the challenges or impacts of divorce in our society as a whole, particularly in terms of children’s advice successes. It appears that the question requires an answer and a solution.

Divorce not only means the end of a man and a woman’s living together, but it also causes social instability, such as the problem of delinquent children in some towns, an increase in the rate of suicide, intoxication, promiscuity, and other issues.

These issues have an impact on any society’s socioeconomic and political existence, as well as the scholastic accomplishment of its children. The most essential and well publicised component of divorce is the impact on the children of such parents, as the divorce rate has risen dramatically.

The actual number of children affected has risen dramatically. When faced with adversity, some of them turn into robbers, criminals, and renowned figures. All of them contribute to an unpleasant social atmosphere in society, stifling the nation’s progress in all areas because they act as a stumbling block.

1.2 Statement of Problems

Divorce in today’s society has caused a variety of problems. They include the rise of indiscipline and lawlessness in our culture, armed robbery, theft, drug misuse and addiction, sex abuse, indiscriminate conduct such as bullying in school, pick-pocketing, lying, examination malpractices, and disdain for constituted authority.

1.3 Research Questions.

Based on the preceding assumption, the following are the researchable questions:

1. Do children from broken households perform well in school?

2. What are the immoral actions of children from broken homes?

3. Do children from broken households engage in drug use, absenteeism, and disdain for established authority?

4. How much are these youngsters affected socially, psychologically, and emotionally?

5. Is it correct to argue that parental and extended family meddling contributes to marriage breakdown?

1.4 Study Purpose

1. The primary goal of this research is to provide a detailed evaluation of the problem with marriage that leads to divorce.

2. It is also necessary to evaluate the function of the supervisor in directing and guiding partners against divorce.

3. The purpose of this study is to conduct an assessment of the social classes with the highest divorce rates.

4. Additionally, the study planned to conduct an investigation of the impacts of divorce on children’s academic accomplishment.

1.5 Significance of the Study

Although divorce has existed since time immemorial, little or nothing has been done to address its effects on children’s scholastic and developmental outcomes. Divorce has a significant impact on children’s academic progress.

This survey of divorce among women on children’s academic achievement will assist to resuscitate marriage and enhance marriage relationships, thereby reducing the high divorce rate.

This study will be extremely beneficial to the following sectors. It will assist educational planners and the Ministry of Education in devising a strategy for assisting these children in improving their academic ability by organising customised instructions for the victims.

It will help to raise such parents’ understanding of the damage and harm they have caused to the children they have nurtured or brought into the world. Based on this study, education curriculum planners will recognise the importance of incorporating instructional technology into the school system for the benefit of such individuals.

1.6 Assumptions for the Study

Certain assumptions are made about the impact of divorce on women and their children’s scholastic success. Divorce between parents is thought to have a significant impact on their children’s academic progress.

Another notion is that girls, rather than boys, are the primary victims of numerous impacts on children’s academic ability, which typically have long-term consequences.

1.7 Limitation of the Study

This study focusses on pupils in primary and secondary school. This study focused on five primary and secondary schools in the Oredo Local Government Area of Edo State: Idia Secondary School

Payne Primary School, Edo College, Eware Primary School, and Itohan Secondary School. These schools were chosen for their diverse locations within the Oredo Local Government Area.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

One weakness of the study was the difficulty of obtaining precise and honest responses from respondents. Some respondents may not have disclosed all of their issues, and some may overlook the use of respondents’ perceptions to assess the correctness of parents’ perceptions.

On the other hand, they may have deceived them in ways they believed were likely, but which did not disturb their children. Another limitation of this study is that the results and findings may not be generalisable to the entire state of Edo, let alone Nigeria, or to all children’s problems, particularly those itemised and categorised in the other sections of the questionnaire, as well as for all ages of divorce victims.

To better comprehend the impact of divorce on children’s academic accomplishment, it’s important to first clarify the terminologies used. These terms could indicate something else outside of the context:

1. Divorce: The formal dissolution of a couple’s marriage, allowing the husband and wife to remarry.

2. Divorcee: This term refers to a divorced lady or man who is legally free to marry again.

3. Marriage: The act of two people living together as husband and wife.

4. Academic Achievement: This refers to children’s performance in an examination or test following a series of lectures.

5. Sorogate: This is a custom that allows a widowed man to contact his wife’s sister.

6. Juvenile Delinquency: This is the failure of a person or youth to perform the duties required by law.

7. Shaky Marriage: This is a condition in which a marriage is unstable due to frequent disagreements, nagging, and fighting.

8. Infidelity: This is a lack of religious commitment on the part of spouses.

9. Desertion: The unlawful desertion of one spouse and children (if any) by the other spouse.

10. Wife Abuse: Unlawful battery of wives by their husbands/spouses, which can result in physical harm.

11. Illegitimate Children: Children born outside of marriage.

12. Vagabonds: Children who do not have a good home upbringing.

13. Spouse: Your legal husband or wife.

14. Addiction: This is the state of being enslaved to a habit or overwhelming desire.

15. Separation: A court-ordered arrangement that ends a marriage but requires married people to live separately.

16. Truancy: This is the habit of remaining away from school without authorisation.

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Barriers To Effective School Health Program Among Secondary School Teachers

1.1 Background for the Study

Integrated, comprehensive, and strategic school health programs are more likely to provide positive effects.1 In 1980, the World Health Organisation (WHO) shifted its focus from individual behaviours to establishing healthy structures, resulting in a more holistic approach to health promotion.

2,3 The Health Promoting Schools (HPS) program was launched in 1995 through a collaboration between the health promotion, education, and communication sectors, the intra-sectorial school health working group, and WHO’s regional office.

4 This effort focusses on capacity development and encouraging participation in health, all of which are recognised as critical precondition for promoting health and empowerment in schools.

2,3 HPS explores the link between health and education, as expressed in the United Nations’ Health for All and Education for All goals, as well as the social model of health that served as the foundation of the Ottawa Charter.

4,5 The establishment of HPS resulted from the attention and application of the Ottawa Charter’s ideas in schools, as well as the emphasis on the construction of health promotion institutions.2,6

The project was initially implemented in Iran in 2007, where there are approximately 75 million people and 13 million students. A joint agreement was signed between the Ministry of Health and Medical Education (MOHME) and the Ministry of Education (MOE), which resulted in the establishment of the School Health Management System as well as the Schools’ Ranking Plan to support and monitor local HPS programs that are implemented across the country’s school system.5 The HPS initiative began as a trial program in East Azerbaijan Province with 36 schools in 2009-2010, and was then expanded to 700 schools in 2011-2012.

WHO developed HPS throughout the previous decade, and it is now being deployed globally.2 Studies on the experiences of HPS participating countries have yielded a variety of results and problems.

The most significant recognised problems were the mobilisation of human resources and facilities to carry out the effort, the engagement of societies as whole identities, policymakers, the public, corporate, and non-governmental sectors, as well as students, their parents, and teachers.

7 The Caribbean HPS Network’s first meeting identified the main barriers to achieving HPS goals as a lack of continuous funding, insufficient and unstable governmental support, inappropriate development of HPS national networks, limited involvement, and restricted access to education and continuing education.

8 The European HPS Network identified many main challenges, including the need for more collaboration between the education and health sectors, technical support, and limited finance.

9 According to Leiger et al. (2001), the largest challenges to achieving HPS goals are instructors’ and educational institutions’ insufficient preparedness for health issues, a lack of time and resources, and facility weaknesses.

10 In the Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office (EMRO), HPS member countries identified insufficient finance and technical knowledge, a lack of awareness among political leaders about the program, and a lack of infrastructure as critical challenges.

11 HPS has now been adopted in all EMRO nations, with the exception of Afghanistan and Libya, and many local networks have been formed over the last decade using various approaches.2,11 In Bahrain, HPS is organised by a group that includes WHO and Ministry of Health members.

In Jordan, the group is led by the School Health Director-General of the Ministry of Health and consists of officials from the Ministries of Health and Education. Lebanon’s authorities solicited assistance from the commercial and public sectors, as well as international organisations, in implementing the initiative.11

1.2 Statement Of The Problem

Despite the significance of student health and school hygiene as components of community health infrastructure, few feasibility studies on school health initiatives have been done in poor countries such as Nigeria.

This study looked at potential barriers to and issues with such programs among secondary school teachers in Orumba North Local Government.

1.3 Goal of the Study

The primary goal of the study is to assess the impediments to an effective school health program among secondary school teachers in Orumba North Local Government.

1.4 Research Questions.

(1) What are health programs?

(2) What are the advantages?

(3) What elements influence its efficacy in secondary school?

1.5 Significance of the Study

The study will provide a thorough understanding of the challenges to an effective school health programs among secondary school teachers.However, there is insufficient evidence about the plan’s achievements, and to the best of our knowledge

this study will be the first systematic attempt to investigate the pros and cons of the executed program in order to identify potential barriers and challenges encountered by the school health programme in Orumba North local government.

1.6 Scope of the Study

The study focusses on the difficulties to implementing an effective school health initiative among secondary school teachers in Orumba North Local Government.

Refrences

1. St Leger L. Protocols and guidelines for health-promoting schools. Promot & Educ. 2005;12:145–147. [PubMed]

2. Mũkoma W, Flisher AJ. Evaluations of Health Promoting Schools: A Review of Nine Studies. Health Promotion International. 2004;19:357–268. [PubMed]

3. Clift S, Jensen BB. The Health Promoting School: International Advances in Theory, Evaluation, and Practice. Denmark: Danish Education University Press, 2005.

4. Jones JT and Furner M. WHO’s Global School Health Initiative: Health Promoting Schools: A Healthy Environment for Living, Learning, and Working (World Health Organisation, Division of Health Promotion, Education, and Communication, Health Education and Health Promotion Unit). Geneva: WHO, 1998.

5. Motlagh M, Chitchian M, Dashti M, Moslemi M, Aminaei T, Ardalan G, Timeline for Implementing Health Promoting Schools in the Islamic Republic of Iran. 2nd ed. Tehran: Ministry of Health, Office of Adolescent Health. 2011.

6. Whitehead, D. The health-promoting school: What role for nursing? J Clin Nurs. 2006;15:264–271. [PubMed]

7. Ippolito-Shepherd J, Cerqueira MT, Ortega DP. Health Promotion Schools Initiative in the Americas. Promot Educ. 2005;12:220-229,180. [In Spanish]. [PubMed]

8. Ippolito-Shepherd J, Mantilla Castellanos L, and Cerqueira MT. Health-promoting schools: boosting the regional initiative. Strategies and Action Plans for 2003–2012 (No. 4). Washington, DC: WHO, Health Promotion Series, 2003.

9. Rasmussen VB, Rivett D. The European Network of Health Promoting Schools: An Alliance for Health, Education, and Democracy. Health Education (Lond) 2000;100:61–67.

10. St Leger L. Schools, health literacy, and public health: Opportunities and Challenges. Health Promotion International. 2001;16:197–205. [PubMed]

11. WHO/EMRO. Report on the Consultation on Health- Promoting Schools in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, Sanaa, Republic of Yemen, December 12-14, 2005. Geneva: World Health Organisation Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean, Cairo; 2006.

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Perception Of Parents Towards Malnutrition

Chapter one

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

Malnutrition refers to both undernutrition (subnutrition) and overnutrition (obesity). It can also refer to the insufficient, excessive, or imbalanced ingestion of nutrients.

Nutrition is crucial to a growing child’s capacity to develop normally into adulthood since malnutrition causes slowed growth, muscular wasting, and a lack of several vitamins, particularly vitamin A and zinc mineral.

Malnutrition is defined by the Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2010) as a poor health condition caused by a lack of food or a lack of the appropriate nourishment. Malnutrition is defined by the World Health Organisation (WHO, 2010) as a lack of microelements such as potassium, manganese, iron, and magnesium required for appropriate metabolism and bodily function. It is worth noting that nutrient requirements rise during early growth and development both in utero and outside of the uterus. According to the National Health Service of the United Kingdom (NHS).

Malnutrition is estimated to impact approximately three million individuals, with one in every three people admitted to hospitals or care homes in the United Kingdom being malnourished or at risk of malnourishment.

According to Black et al. (2013), undernutrition kills three million children each year. Malnutrition is projected to have caused a 31% increase in fatalities in Africa from 1990 to 43% in 2005, resulting in 10.6 million deaths of under-five children per year (World Health Organisation, 2015).

The Federal Ministry of Health estimates that 41% of Nigerian children under the age of five are malnourished, resulting in 1.1 million fatalities (Punch News 2015).

Statement of the Problem

Malnutrition in growing children is one of the leading causes of child morbidity and mortality, accounting for up to 33% of all child deaths in Nigeria. Malnutrition causes at least 30–50% of all childhood deaths and 10–40% of hospital admissions in underdeveloped countries (WHO 2005).

Severe malnutrition in growing children increases the risk of morbidity because malnourished children are more sensitive to infection, have impaired cognitive development, poor social and emotional success, and lower economic productivity.

To make a long-term impact, interventions must address both the primary cause and the contextual element. Poverty has been identified as a key factor of severe malnutrition; however, the path to this is complex.

Improved economic performance does not always result in improved nutritional status; poverty increases susceptibility to poor nutritional outcomes, although a large number of children raised in poverty thrive. As a result, appropriate nutrition is only one component that matters.

The incorporation of psychosocial stimulation (exposing a kid to a variety of experiences and encouraging them to explore their surroundings) into nutritional programs has been shown to be a crucial component in effectively alleviating malnutrition.

This includes improving parenting skills and promoting change in the parent-child relationship. As a result, understanding parents’ thoughts and behaviours is critical in any nutritional intervention.

As a first step in mobilising resources to develop an appropriate intervention, a study was conducted to determine parent perceptions of malnutrition as a health problem in growing children.

In a community like Gongi, where the mother is the primary carer and the parent who typically accompanyes a child to the hospital for treatment of severe malnutrition, the parent is the key to overcoming the consequences of severe malnutrition.

The current study aims to answer the following question: “What are parents’ perceptions of malnutrition as a health problem in growing children at Gongi clinic?”

Objectives of the Study

i. The study seeks to determine parents’ attitudes about malnutrition.

ii. Identify the cause of malnutrition.

iii. Identify the implications of malnutrition.

Significance of the Study

The study’s findings will help researchers understand the causes of hunger, the impacts of malnutrition, and mothers’ perceptions of starvation. The study will also assist moms understand the implications of malnutrition.

Knowing the prevalence of malnutrition among growing children would allow the Gongi clinic to educate parents more about malnutrition prevention.

Research Questions

i. What are the causes of malnutrition among growing children?

ii. What impact does malnutrition have on children’s growth and development?

iii. What are nursing mothers’ attitudes regarding malnutrition?

Scope of the Study

The research topic focusses on parents who attend Gongi clinic in Maiduguri, Borno state, and their perceptions of malnutrition as a health problem in developing children.

Limitations

Delay in collecting questionnaires because customers visit the Infant Welfare Clinic on different days, difficulties in obtaining client attention, and funding constraints.

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Incidence Of Gastro-Enteritis

ABSTRACT

The study was designed to determine the incidence of gastro-enteritis in Danwaire street Kaduna south local government of Kaduna state of Nigeria. The study’s aims and objectives were set up in order to achieve this study, along with research question hypotheses.

The literature was reviewed on the incidence of gastroenteritis in Dan waire Street Barnawa and how it can be controlled and prevented. The research design was survey design method, and the population of the study area was fifty thousand.

Data were presented and analysed using tables and percentages. Based on the research findings, the causes of gastroenteritis in the study area are ignorance, poor hygiene, and ingesting contaminated water and food, and the rate of typhoid is prevalent in all age groups.

Also, recommendations were made to the community government and health personnel. should develop the practice of cleaning water before use in order to minimise the spread of sickness in the study region, as well as supply free drugs due to the high cost of the drugs.

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Factors Militating Against The Practice Of Aseptic Technique At The Ward Level

ABSTRACT

Background: Nurses are more likely to acquire and transmit Health Care Acquired Infections (HCAI) when providing nursing care; consequently, prevention strategies are an important component of core nursing care.

Factors that discourage nurses from using aseptic techniques in infection control during burn therapy play an important role in reducing morbidity and mortality, as well as the expense of burn wound management at the individual and ward levels.

As a result, HCAI is the most severe consequence of burns, with sepsis being the leading cause of death. Adherence to YSH’s standard operating procedures for burns therapy, which use aseptic techniques, helps to avoid infection transmission.

The purpose of this study was to identify factors that work against the use of aseptic technique among nurses in the management of burns patients at YSH.

Methods: A cross-sectional descriptive study methodology was used to obtain a sample size of 59 nurses working in the burns ward at YSH. Data were collected using a self-administered questionnaire and a standardised observational checklist.

Data was coded and analysed with SPSS version 21, which used descriptive statistics such as median, mean, and frequency distributions, as well as chi-square analysis for categorical data. The link between the independent variables and the primary dependent variable was determined using logistic regression modelling.

Results: 42.9% of participants did not correctly wash their hands before, during, and after the dressing operation, whereas 88.1% had good knowledge of aseptic technique; nonetheless, 14.6% of individuals practiced aseptic technique throughout the procedure, whilst 85.4% did not.

There was a statistically significant relationship between barriers to aseptic technique and appropriate water supply in the taps and soap at P=0.038 (OR=4.5). 70.7% of the rooms did not have standard operating procedures in place to avoid infection.

31.6% of the rooms contained segregation posters. 54.8% of nurses identified barriers to aseptic technique implementation that impeded knowledge application to practice.

Conclusion: Nurses working in burns specialised units have acceptable understanding of aseptic technique and play an important role in the prevention of sepsis during burns patient management, however their adherence is fair in practice.

Recommendations: These findings suggest that nurses in specialised wards should be re-trained on aseptic technique procedures by the institution, and that institutional policies be made available to the respective ward departments, in addition to adequate logistics on supplies and equipment. Aseptic technique surveillance should be improved from the managerial to the ward level to maintain the Standard Operating Procedures.

Chapter one

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background information.

Patients with severe burns may die as a result of complications like septicaemia. Burns wound infection (BWI) is the most common nosocomial infection in burn units. Healthcare-associated infection is the most devastating complication of burns, and sepsis is the leading cause of death (Church et al, 2006).

Other burn wound complications include pain, discomfort, annoyance, and impairment (Odabas A.B, et al. 2009). Wound management may also result in financial losses.

Noncompliance with aseptic procedures would increase morbidity and mortality (McRobert & Stiles, 2014), raising the expense of burn wound treatment at both the individual and national levels.

As social scientists agree, there is no national culture, and therefore no national burn management culture or guidelines. Each burn unit has its own burn management culture that is influenced by a variety of circumstances, necessitating the necessity for unit-based studies. In social studies, transferability and generalisation of findings are not suggested from trend analysis.

The number of patients burned each year is disturbing (Andrews E.A. 2015). Globally, fire-related injuries are responsible for 265 000 deaths per year, with the vast majority occurring in low- and middle-income nations.

According to the World Health Organisation (WHO, 2002), South East Asia had the most recorded deaths (57%), followed by Africa (12, 2%), and low and middle regions in the Eastern Mediterranean (11%).

According to the WHO (2008), the annual incidence of fire-related injuries requiring medical attention was 10.9 million worldwide, with South East Asia (5.9 million) being the most afflicted region, followed by Africa (1.75 million) and the Eastern Mediterranean (1.55 million). Burns appear to be most prevalent in underdeveloped nations with limited access to health care and resources (Andrews E.A. 2015).

This study was conducted in Nigeria, a developing country, specifically in Yobe, Nigeria’s capital city. Yobe, like many other developing countries, is characterised by urban migration, poverty, and the growth of slums. These urban characteristics contribute to and are associated with overcrowding and the risk of burns (Rode & Rogers 2011).

Advances in research over the years have significantly improved burn outcomes, as seen with the use of antiseptics in the 1960s, increased use of occlusive dressings and early surgery in the 1970s, and topical antimicrobial agents in the 1990s (Demling & DeSanti, 2001).

Despite these developments, some institutions continue to use out-of-date treatments and practices, such as Silver Sulphadiazine (SSD) cream as the standard of care.

Newer research demonstrates that the disadvantages of SSD outweigh the benefits (Opasanon, Muangman, & Mamiviriyachote, 2010; Muangman, Pundee, Opasanon, et al., 2010; Caruso, Foster, Blome-Eberwein, et al., 2006; Varas, O’Keeffe, Namias, et al., 2005).

The majority of research in the care of burn wounds focusses on surgical management, with no study focussing on nursing management. Burns are currently managed by nurses, however their clinical methods differ significantly.

There are no standards or recommendations in place to influence nursing practice, thus not all patients benefit from evidence-based burn wound treatment techniques.

Several research have been undertaken on surgical burn wound management. Emphasis has been placed on operations in the Burn Unit, which are typically required. This study sought to evaluate aseptic practices used by nurses in burn therapy. Nurses are required to be skilled in wound management, which is taught as part of the undergraduate general nursing curriculum (Bruce, Klopper & Mellish, 2011: 176).

Furthermore, knowledge serves as the foundation for making informed decisions as well as the framework for developing and maintaining competence (Benbow, 1992). Nurses are consequently responsible for being knowledgeable about burn wound treatment guidelines.

Severe and poorly controlled burn infections can cause paralytic ileus, shock, compartment syndrome, and acute renal failure, among other complications (Brunner and Suddarth 2010).

Chronic infections can result in septicaemia or bone infections, which can lead to mortality. Sepsis-related encephalopathy increases morbidity and mortality, particularly in patients (Maramattom, 2007).

Financial constraints, a lack of resources, guidelines, healthcare professionals, and patient characteristics all affect burns care on the African continent (Albertyn R, Numanoglu A., & Rode H., 2014). The significance of aseptic technique measures in relation to other elements must be identified and reinforced.

Nigeria has shown significant improvements in medical practice (Elamenya et al. 2015). Notable efforts have been made to maintain aseptic conditions in surgical wards. However, the prevalence of would infection is growing.

Wound infection management remains a concern in surgical regions, with burns patients being particularly vulnerable to infection (Coban Y.K 2012). Sepsis and multiorgan failure are the top causes of burns death (William F.N 2009). As a result, burns care focusses primarily on prevention and management.

Some research has been conducted at YSH on antibiotic sensitivity patterns (Kinyua, 2013) and pain treatment (Kiplangat, 2013). Aseptic technique is determined by a variety of factors, including changing attitudes.

Age, causes of burns, and the presence of co-morbid conditions were found to be factors determining the duration of stay of burns patients (Lelei L.K, et al, 2011).

Aseptic technique in wound management studies should be conducted on a regular basis in many hospitals, including the same wards, to generate more knowledge.

1.2 Problem Statement

Burn wound infections, if not properly examined and managed, can cause long-term disability, increased morbidity, and mortality. The role of aseptic procedures as infection control measures in connection to other aspects must be identified and reinforced in order to improve patient care.

To minimise injuries following a catastrophic accident, intensive care provided by specialised specialists is essential. This is difficult to execute in a developing nation with few specialised burns facilities and skilled burns professionals (Chalya et al, 2011).

The rate of burns wound infection in YSH was 18.7% in a total of 347 patients, with risk factors predisposing to infection ranging from age to the extent of burns surface area, different modes of management, and their effectiveness (Wanjeri, 2013).

Infections cause the patient more pain and lengthen their stay in the hospital. To avoid infection, the surroundings surrounding the incision should be clean (Almas et al, 2011). As a result, the purpose of this study was to evaluate aseptic technique in burns wound management among nurses.

1.3 Research Questions.

What is the clinical evidence for aseptic technique practice in burns wound treatment among YSH nurses?

What are the obstacles preventing nurses at the ward level in YSH from using aseptic techniques?

1.4 Objectives.

To analyse factors militating against the practice of factors militating against the practice of aseptic technique among nurses in the management of burns patients at the ward level in Yobe State Specialist Hospital

Specific Objective

To evaluate the practice of proper hand washing technique before, during and after procedure among nurses in the management of burns patients at the ward level in Yobe state speciality hospital.

To examine adherence to standard wound dressing method among nurses in the management of burns patients at the ward level in Yobe State Specialist Hospital.

To evaluate the practice of effective waste segregation among nurses during the management of burns patients at the ward level in Yobe State Specialist Hospital.

To identify the factors that influence the practice of factors that impede the practice of aseptic technique among nurses at the ward level in Yobe State Specialist Hospital.

1.5 Significance of the Study

Burn wound infection was the most common infection in burn units. Such injuries may be severe, necessitating critical care and/or surgical surgery.

Burns frequently lead to wounds. A wound can occur as a result of purposeful or inadvertent skin disruption (Giacometti et al, 2000). Good wound management is critical in preventing healthcare-associated infections.

Many of these cases result in premature deaths. The infection rate of burn wounds at YNH was 23.6% (22/93 patients), and the entire study found a high correlation between burn wound infection and mortality in YSH (Ngugi, 2013).

Adherence to aseptic method lowers hospital-acquired infection in burns patients (WHO 2012). The purpose of this study was to analyse aseptic technique practice in connection to the occurrence of burns wound infection in YSH, with the goal of reducing the prevalence of burns wound infections and supporting preventive intervention approaches.

1.6 Scope.

The majority of wounds at YSH (59.3%) are burn wounds, with 22.7% being accident-related wounds. The majority of wound cases were detected in burns wards (56%), with the remainder in burns unit (24.7%) wards.

Wound patients at YSH are treated in the general burns ward or burns unit. This study did not focus on a specific ward, but rather collected samples from all wards containing burn victims.

1.7 Limitations.

Sample size: The population under study supplied a small sample size (59), although statistical tests require a bigger sample size to assure a representation of the population and to be considered representative of the group of persons to whom results will be generalised.

Due to a lack of previous research studies on this topic in YSH, the literature review search was limited to studies conducted both within and outside the hospital on relevant topics.

Participants’ bias may occur when they realise they are being observed, altering the data to be collected. To reduce observational bias, the researcher will observe each participant three times on separate patients while doing the identical procedure on various days.

The semester’s time limits limit the amount of time expected to prepare the proposal and publish the results.

1.8 Operational Definition

The aseptic technique is a way for preventing microorganism infection. It entails adopting the toughest regulations and utilising what is known about infection prevention to minimise the chances of an illness (Kristeen Cherney and Rachel Nall 2015).

A burn is a damage to the skin or other organic tissue that is primarily the result of thermal or other acute stress. It happens when some or all of the cells in the skin or other tissue are killed by hot liquids (scalds), hot solids (contact burns), flames (flame burns), radiation, radioactivity, electricity, friction or chemicals, cold or frost bite.

Burn wound management refers to the treatment of burn wounds. Management begins with an examination of a burn wound’s size, depth, and placement. Following assessment, the wound is cleaned and dressings are put based on the depth of the burn wound (Demling & DeSanti, 2004).

A burns unit is an organised medical system that provides entire care to the wounded patient (British Burn Association, 2002).

Competence is defined as knowledge, skill (behaviour), attitude (interpersonal), and values; it is the deliberate application of judgement based on knowledge and understanding (Bruce, Klopper, & Mellish, 2011: 176).

Evidence-based wound management involves the merging of best scientific evidence, clinical skill, and patient values (Sackett, Straus, Richardson, et al., 2000).

Healthcare-related infection (nasocomial infection): an infection connected with healthcare in any context. The infection may be acquired while undergoing treatment for another condition.

(National Infection Prevention and Control Guidelines for Healthcare Services in Nigeria, 2010)

Health is a condition of total physical, mental, and social well-being, not just the absence of disease or disability. (WHO, 2003)

Management is the specialised treatment of a sickness or condition (Oxford English Dictionary 2014).

Methodological assumptions influence the nature of the research process, including the most appropriate approach to adopt (Mouton, 1996: 124). This study’s methodological assumptions include evidence-based research, the scientific process, and ethical research.

Morbidity refers to an individual’s disease state or the prevalence of illness in a population.

Mortality refers to the state of being mortal, or the frequency of death (number of deaths) in a community.

A nurse is someone who is registered with the NCN to practise nursing or midwifery (SANC, 1984: Nursing Act, 2005) and does so for a living (Searle et al., 2009:50).

Nursing is a caring profession practiced by a person registered with the South African Nursing Council who supports, cares for, and treats a health care user to achieve or maintain health where possible; and cares for a health care user so that he or she lives in comfort and dignity until death (SANC, 1984).

The nursing process is a systematic problem-solving method that identifies, prevents, and treats real or potential health problems while also promoting wellness (Chabeli, 2007).

Wound healing is the process of restoring injured tissues by replacing dead tissue with viable tissue. A closed wound dressing is one that does not communicate directly with the atmosphere.

Wounds are bodily injuries induced by physical causes that interrupt the natural continuity of the skin structure.

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Microbiology Of Surgical Wound Infections

Abstract

Surgical wound infections account for a significant portion of nosocomial infections and often arise within 30 days after the procedure or within one year if an implant is present. Surgical wound infections have been characterised according to their location and level of microbial contamination.

The causes of surgical wound infections and the mechanisms by which they enter surgical incision sites have been identified. The risk factors for surgical wound infections, including patient and operative features, have been recognised, as has their management.

Despite knowing the factors that drive surgical wound infections and how to prevent and/or control them, surgical patients continue to get infections.

Surgical wound infections are diagnosed and treated effectively in order to reduce economic expenditures and morbidity. Different surveillance strategies have been used to lower the rate of surgical wound infections.

Chapter one

INTRODUCTION

Prior to the mid-19th century, surgical patients frequently had postoperative “irritative fever,” which was followed by purulent discharge from their incision, overwhelming sepsis, and, in many cases, death. Postoperative infection morbidity did not significantly decrease until the late 1860s, when Joseph Lister established antisepsis principles.

Among surgical patients, surgical wound infections are the most prevalent nosocomial infection. Surgical wound infections occur within 30 days of the procedure or within one year if an implant is present, and are divided into three categories based on wound location and four categories based on the degree of microbial contamination.

Risk factors and management approaches have been identified. The bacteria isolated from surgical wound infections vary according to the underlying condition, location, and type of surgical surgery.

Surgical wound infections should be properly detected and treated in order to get patients home sooner and limit morbidity. To lower the rate of surgical wound infections, it would be beneficial to monitor them and provide appropriate feedback.

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