CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Oil spillage is the release of petroleum substance or product into the streams, lakes, rivers, beaches, seas, oceans and land, which becomes poisonous and thus make the water and land fouled and threatened the rich coastal habitat.

Oil spillage is an environmental problem in Nigeria. It is common in oil producing areas. During a spill, oil floats on land and water surface and forms an oil slick that is about 0.1mm thick continuing to spread, the stick becomes 0.01mm thick.

Oil is a very complex mixture of predominantly hydrocarbons the light {less dense} portions of oil are more toxic but also more likely to evaporate. Evaporation can reduce the volume of crude oil slick. Heavier oil can wash to the shore causing serious short-term harm to shellfish and plants life. oil spillage on soil makes it unsatisfactory for the plant growth. This is due to insufficient aeration of the soil because of air from the spaces between the soil particles by oil spillage.

Tarry lumps, float, sink or cover habitats of shallow water organisation. They may also foul beaches. Weather is a key factor for oil spills; wind can cause an emulsion, which can least for weeks and be difficult to pump.

During the early stages, coming in contact with the soil, may kill seabirds and mammals, because of the toxic chemicals. Oil on feathers hinders water repellency and poisons the birds from the oral consumption of the toxic materials fur bearing animals, seabirds and seals lose their buoyancy and insulation when oil fouls their fur they either drown or suffer hypothermial and die the effects on fish are unclean. Fish may simply swim away but floating eggs can be destroyed.

In areas where wildlife is very healthy or full recovery has been seen within two or four years but if the spill occurred during migration or breeding season, it could be devastating and prompt action is crucial.

The communities have remained grossly socio economically under developed and pauperized amidst the immense oil wealth owing to systematic disequilibrium the production. Exchange relationship between the state, the transnational companies and the people. Enormous money had been derived from oil export but the area has been subjected to severe land degradation, socio-economic disorganization, increasing poverty, misery militancy occupation, and bloody violence.

Oil extraction has impacted most disastrously on the socio-physical environmental of the Niger Delta region. Oil bearing communities massively threatening the fragile subsistent peasant economy and biodiversity and hence their entire social livelihood and very survival.

The socio and environmental costs of oil production have been extensive. They include destruction of wildlife and biodiversity, loss of fertile soil, pollution of air and drinking water, degradation of farmland and damage to aquatic ecosystem, all of which include caused serious health problems for the inhabitants of areas surrounding oil

production the occurrence of oil spillage in Nigeria is frequent in February 2001, another soil spillage was reported in Ughilli which led to pollution of the water, there by making it not navigable for fishes and carrying out economic activities and the killing of fishes in the river.

Most of the people who lived in the area depended upon fishing for their livelihood. The oil spillage changed their lifestyle and they lost their jobs in the local government.

1.2     STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS

There are a lot of environmental problems in Nigeria such as desert encroachment, wide life depleion, pollution, flooding, land and water and air pollution among others. The exploitation of oil in the Niger Delta region has brought to bear oil spillage and its numerous effects. Hence, this study tries to find out the causes and effects of oil spillages and environmental remediation measures of the oil companies in the area.

1.3            RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The research questions for this study include the following;

1.                 What are the causes of oil spillage in the area?

2.                 What are the effects of oil spillage on the farming in the area?

3.                 What is the effect of oil spillage on fishing festival?

4.                 Is fishing affected by oil spillage in the area?

5.                 Are the environmental remediation measures the oil companies adequate?

1.4            OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1.                 To examine the causes of oil spillage in the area.

2.                 To find out the effects of oil spillage in the area.

3.                 To know the extent to which the oil spillage affect the farmland in the area.

4.                 To examine the effects of oil spillage on fishing in the area.

5.                 To see if the environmental remediation measures by the oil companies are adequate.

1.5     SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

It will help to create public awareness and understanding of oil spills problems and appreciation of their responsibilities to the environment. Industrial wastes from the oil industries could be used to address the impact of infrastructural deficiency in the local communities, for example the disposal of gas from flaring could constitute the basis for generating power for urban and rural electrification.

Other industrial waste such as plastics synthetic fibers, detergent and solvent could form the yield stock for petrol chemical industry. However, the wealth derived from oil sources exploit this oil producing areas socio culturally, socio-economically and psychologically.

It will also highlight the extent of the effect of oil spillage on the public and point relevant oil spillage issues deserving the attention of public enlightenment; that is enlightenment campaign through print media, radio and television if the government can implement laws, policies and enforcement measures within the existing production regions.

1.6     SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The subject matter of the study is oil spillage it determines the causes and effects of oil spillage and environmental remediation measures that has been put in place by the oil companies.

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THE IMPACTS OF NIGER DELTA OIL SPILLAGE

CHAPTER ONE

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Water is a vital commodity of life when it is polluted, it becomes useless. So water pollution is defined as the contamination of water with pollutants and other contaminants. The effects of pollution on water are diverse and affect human, plant, animals and the environment at large causing genetic disorder and diseases.

Water can exist in three states of matter which is the solid, liquid and the gaseous state. Water pollution also affects aquatic life both flora and fauna. They are polluted when the water is polluted with natural agents such as pollen grains, dust and volcanic ash. Moreover, human play a role in polluting water, letting out harmful sewage and other contaminants from industries and factories and household garbages.

WATER POLLUTION AFFECTS THE FOLLOWING

1.   Plant life

2.   Animal life

3.   Health

4.   Environment

5.   Economy

Man should control this problem which has now become a local and national threat. If the problem of water pollution is not checked, it will cause more harm to the nation and world at large. Since the water body is estimated seventy percent (70%) of the earth surface.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The effects of water pollution are so numerous that explanation can no longer express it especially the one faced by the Abudu people. Water pollution affects all parts of life, due to the fact that many organisms can not do without it, but the way to bring a concise cure to the menace matters a lot it is caused by many factors which may include:

1.   Sewage

2.   Chemical deposition

3.   Transportation

4.   Heat

The above factors and many others produce a very strong effect on the water and those that consume it. Such effects are diseases, economic depreciation and environmental destruction.

Diseases outbreak such as cholera outbreak and typhoid fever are due to water pollution. The destruction of fishes and other marine life could destabilize the economy. Environmental disaster such as the death of living organism like fishes and plants affect lives.

Since water pollution affects man and the environments, ways should be planned to stop the rising problem.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The major purpose of the study is to find out the causes of water pollution especially the effects of water pollution and the relevant solution which should be applied including suggestions relevant to stop these problems.

It will use Abudu in Orhionmwon Local Government Area of Edo as case study. The basic reason for such research is to find out.

1)   How the people of the locality has suffered from water pollution.

2)   Check if there is any benefit derived from water pollution.

3)   Check what lead to water pollution in the locality.

4)   Consider the solution to water pollution.

5)   How such solution can be maintained.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study is embarked upon to leave an impact on the reasoning, manner and habit of Nigerians misuse and dumping of all kinds of pollutants on water bodies which makes water unhygienic for consumption and other very vital use in our daily activities.

It has to go a long way in educating both young and old about the things they should do to make water bodies inhabitable by both plants and animals also ensuring water is usable by man.

It also shows how water pollution could affect a community and a nation at large, if not controlled or stopped.

The study will also highlight the things that cause water pollution, in order for man to be careful of what they dump into water bodies. It also show the kind of harm water pollution will effect on man e.g. sickness and diseases etc.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Research question is to expand the problems identified in the statement of problem which has earlier been highlighted with the fact that water pollution affects all areas of human life.

The effects of water pollution are very numerous and the following questions serve as guide to the study.

1.   Is there evidence of water pollution in Abudu?

2.   Does water pollution destroy life?

3.   Does water pollution affect organisms?

4.   Does water pollution have any effect on the environment?

5.   Can water pollution be caused by man?

6.   Can water pollution be stopped or controlled?

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Water pollution in Nigeria today is alarming and the effects can not be overemphasized. Nigerians look at the positive effects it has on them neglecting the negatively, its damages to the society.

The work will be divided into five (5) chapters which will cover the problems and expatiate the problems faced by the Abudu community which is due to water pollution. The scope will include the introductory part, the causes of water pollution, the effect on the environment, health life and nature in the work, solutions to the problems enumerated will be highlighted and also the conclusion.

The methods and sources of the project work shall depend basically on findings which is been available on the Abudu waters, libraries materials and different sectors of acquiring knowledge such as internet works as the study progresses descriptively and executively.

DEFINITION OF TERMS                                          

These are some terms which were used during the study are listed and are defined as follows:

Pollution: it is the release of harmful substance into the environment e.g. water, air, etc.

Genetic: the transfer of character and qualities from the parents to the offspring through gene.

Flora: a plant of a region or period

Fauna: animal life of a region or period

Sewage: waste water conveyed such as water of human urine or excrement

Thermal: large column of hot air rising from the ground

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WATER POLLUTION EFFECTS IN ABUDU

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 THE STUDY’S BACKGROUND

It is widely assumed that students can benefit academically from living in a decent housing unit on or near campus. So much so that, with few exceptions, many colleges and universities, ranging from small liberal arts colleges to large state universities, require students to live on campus during their first year, owing to the failure of appropriate authorities to provide adequate housing for students.

Students over the age of 25, students who are married and/or have children, and students in the military are typically exempt from such a policy because they can afford to provide for themselves a better housing unit outside of campus at a comparatively expensive amount (Loring, 1996). It has been proposed that having a decent housing structure makes students less likely to drop out or transfer, more likely to make academic progress, and more capable of achieving a high level of academic performance.

Despite these common perceptions, estimating the impact of a decent housing unit on student performance is difficult. There is no effective control group for schools that require first-year students to live on campus. Year one students who do not live on campus typically share other characteristics that distinguish them. Even for students, a house is a place to live. It is a place to live or seek refuge. A house is more than just a temporary shelter. Its essence is found in the people who live there (English, 1987).

Overcrowding, insecurity, poor physical condition of housing, and living in deprived neighborhoods are all examples of bad housing. Poor housing conditions can cause a wide range of health problems, ranging from psychological and physiological effects to specific diseases with varying degrees of morbidity (Chapin, 2001).

A substantial body of scientific literature demonstrates convincingly that there are direct causal links between various aspects of poor housing and specific health conditions (Smith, 1990). Infectious diseases, non-infectious respiratory diseases such as asthma, and social and psychological problems have all been linked to poor housing.

Overcrowding, dampness and moulds, and sanitation and basic housing quality have all been identified as three primary components of poor housing that are directly linked to poor health outcomes in the literature. The researcher will investigate these components and their relationship to students’ academic performance as well as the health consequences.

Overcrowding is generally regarded as a threat to mental health rather than physical health, though the spread of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis and scabies is also linked to overcrowding. Most studies on crowding use a standard measure based on WHO guidelines of either persons/room or square feet per person.

However, a word of caution is in order because cultures differ in their tolerance for crowded living conditions. Mitchell (1976) proposed that crowding is a more complex variable that necessitates distinguishing between density (the number of people per unit space) and congestion (the simultaneous demands for the use of available space).

Crowding has a negative mental health impact due to a lack of personal control over the available space, rather than the actual small size of the space. Cultural differences in “crowding” definitions also play a mediating role. Crowding, which has been a feature of the Nigerian student housing system, is cause for concern, necessitating research into the impact of housing conditions on academic performance.

1.2 THE PROBLEM’S STATEMENT

The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between student housing conditions and academic performance. The level of research in this area is fraught with difficulties in proving causation: for example, whether poor housing conditions cause certain people to fail to achieve their educational potential, or whether the two are ‘associated’ – that those who are likely to fail at school are concentrated in poorer condition houses or neighborhoods anyway.

There are schools of thought in some areas (such as mental illness) that those who are less able to cope will ‘drift’ into poorer areas and housing conditions. Although the cause and effect arguments may have more traction in academic circles, the evidence for the positive impact of better housing is overwhelming. However, the researcher is investigating the impact of students’ living conditions on their academic performance.

1.3 THE STUDY’S OBJECTIVES

The following are the study’s objectives:

1. To investigate the impact of students’ living conditions on their academic performance.

2. To investigate the state of the housing units available to Nigerian students.

3. To identify the factors influencing students’ academic performance.

1.4 QUESTIONS FOR RESEARCH

1. How do housing conditions affect students’ academic performance?

2. How are the housing units available to Nigerian students in terms of condition?

3. What factors influence students’ academic performance?

1.5 HYPOTHESIS

HO: There is no significant relationship between student academic performance and housing conditions.

HA: There is a significant relationship between housing conditions and academic performance in students.

1.6 THE STUDY’S SIGNIFICANCE

The following are the study’s implications:

1. The findings of this study will be useful to the general public and government officials charged with the responsibility of providing adequate housing for students in terms of assessing the current situation and its impact on academic performance.

2. This research will also serve as a resource base for other scholars and researchers interested in conducting additional research in this field in the future, and if applied will go so far as to provide new explanations for the topic.

1.7 STUDY SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

The current state of housing used by students in Nigeria and its effect on academic performance will be covered in this study on the effect of housing conditions on student academic performance.

STUDY LIMITATIONS

Financial constraint- Inadequate funding tends to impede the researcher’s efficiency in locating relevant materials, literature, or information, as well as in the data collection process (internet, questionnaire and interview).

Time constraint- The researcher will conduct this study alongside other academic work. As a result, the amount of time spent on research will be reduced.

REFERENCES

Some Housing Factors Related to Mental Hygiene, F.S. Chapin (2001), American Journal of Public Health, 41, 839-845.

J. English (1987). Housing and Health: The Relationship Between Housing Conditions and Council Tenants’ Health 260-262 in the Journal of Social Policy.

W.C. Loring (1996). Personal Interactions and Healthy Development in the Residential Environment 5, 166-169, Journal of Health and Human Behavior.

R.E. Mitchell (1976). Cultural and Health Influences on Building, Housing, and Community Standards: Human Habitat Cost Implications Human Ecology, vol. 4, pp. 297-330.

S.J. Smith (1990). The Housing System and Health Status, Social Science and Medicine, 31, 753-762.

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HOUSING CONDITIONS’ EFFECT ON STUDENT ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

ABSTRACT

The environment is man’s immediate surroundings, and man has always been tempering with his/her environment in his causes to make life easier and meaningful for its existence, such as the exploration of crude oil, gold mining, and other natural minerals in his environment, which in turn creates danger to live stocks and crops during exploration, mining, and excavation.

This researcher has taken it upon himself to learn what the necessary compensations are due to the inhabitants living in that society, if any, and if the compensations are truly measurable enough to elevate the standard of living of the dwellers in that locality the necessary rules, laws, and penalties stipulated for defaulters who refuse to pay or

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 THE ENVIRONMENT’S NATURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

Both history and science seemed to agree that the environment existed before the advent of man, and it is thus logical to rationalize that the environment preceded man’s human technologies and scientific development. It was correctly postulated by who that this environment prior to the advent of man was pure and unpolluted, as discerned from biblical records, when God created the sun total of what was conceived as the environment.

He saw that it was good, so man inherited a good environment and was constituted as a superior being to conquer all earthly natural resources, but not to destroy, pollute, or degrade natural resources created for the same superior beings to exist.

Some natural occurrences, such as earthquakes and draughts, cause harm to the natural environment, even though the natural environment has inbuilt mechanisms to absolve and eliminate some of the harm that originally occurs in nature. The intensification of man’s various activities has caused a shift in this natural mechanism by including and speeding up the occurrence of these incidents.

The preceding is from the standpoint of modern environmental irresponsibility. It has been known since the beginning of man’s creation that man has been dependent on the earth’s ecosystem to provide him with the means of sustenance air to breathe, food to eat, water to drink, and other natural resources to advance quality of life. In other words, good clothing and shelter are essential to man’s basic needs.

These are completely derived from land because life depends on it. The principle of quid plantator solo-solo cedit assumes that land consists of the earth’s surface, the soil, and the air space above it, as well as all things permanently attached to the soil. It also contains steams and ponds. Man, as the world’s most populous being, depends on the reservoir of resources within his immediate surroundings for his own sustenance;

he exploits the environment for all his needs. However, in his attempt to actualize his dreams of existence, the magnetite of his intrusion on the environment’s supporting web is generating an alarm that cannot be ignored, because man’s very existence is threatened to the cord. The above situation has resulted in widespread environmental degradation, which has occurred and continues to occur.

1.1 THE MEANING OF THE WORD ENVIRONMENT

The federal environment protection agency act defines environment as “water, air, land, and all humans and animals living therein, as well as the interrelationships that exist between them.” This essentially means that life is dependent on its surroundings.

Contrary to popular belief, most people in developing countries believe that their lives and livelihoods are entirely dependent on their immediate surroundings. It is now recognized that the environment extends beyond people’s immediate surroundings to other parts of the globe.

As a result, environment is an umbrella term that encompasses all of the essential elements required for life to exist.

1.2 THE CONCEPT OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

There is a chain in the environment that includes all of the constituents in a complex relationship. The chain starts with the simplest elements and progresses to the most complex components in the environment. Each constituent’s activities are regarded as the existence of some other fact or which ensures that a balance is maintained in the natural setup.

The existence of man and his reliance on resources in his immediate vicinity for sustenance have drawn so much from the natural store of resources that there is now an imbalance in the natural setup, and as the human population grows, so do the demands on natural resources.

As a result, in the absence of adequate or significant efforts at stock conservation or replacement, this results in a continuous depletion of available resources. This exploitation of natural resources foreshadows a bleak future for unborn creation. In fact, no activity undertaken by man for his own sustenance and advancement has no effect on the various interactions that exist among the constituents of the environment.

Environmental degradation is primarily defined as pollution in all of its forms, that is, any undesirable changes in the natural characteristics of the environment or the constituent. It includes everything from waste generated and carelessly dumped by various households to farming operations in which natural land is destroyed and chemicals such as pesticides and inorganic fertilizers are released into the environment.

It covers a wide range of scientific laboratories, power plants, and industrial sites where harmful emissions and waste are released into the environment. Others include the construction of structures without proper authorization and/or compliance with health regulations, as well as the various billboards that litter and deface the natural environment. These bits and pieces then come together to cause severe environmental problems for the entire neighborhood, state, and country.

Section 38 of the Federal Environmental Protection Agency Act (FEPA)33 defined pollution as “manmade or man-aided alteration of the chemical, physical, or biological quality of the environment to the extent that is detrimental to the environment or exceeds acceptable limits,” and “pollutants” shall be constructed accordingly. Thus, any undesirable change in the composition or state of the environment that renders it unable to perform its natural roles satisfactorily constitutes environmental degradation.

This is true regardless of whether the change was caused by nature or by man’s creation. All that is required is the occurrence of any state or condition in the environment that prevents it from being suitable for the purpose that it was naturally suited for, and whenever this situation occurs, damage to the environment is said to have occurred.

According to Middlation in Atlas of Environment Issue Oxford University Press 19885, acid rain destroys more than 11 million hectares of forest each year.

1.3 THE CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

There are numerous causes of environmental degradation and natural environment damage. These factors that cause environmental destruction stem from the activities of nature itself, which include man, animals, and other elements found in the environment. However, all of the factors can be broadly classified into two types.

1. Sources of natural occurrences

2. the manufactured sources

1.2.1 Natural Resources

As previously stated, there are some natural factors that contribute to environmental degradation on their own. Quite often, the natural environment takes care of these factors, providing certain safeguards to prevent any serious harm that may result from such activities.

The occurrence of soil erosion, whether caused by rain or wind, is a natural act that occurs on its own; when it occurs, there is a resultant washing away of the soil beginning from the top soil and progressing to the subsoil. In severe cases, the entire top layer of soil is washed away, resulting in what is known as short erosion.

The end result of any type of erosion is environmental damage. Nature, on the other hand, has its own mechanism for controlling soil erosion and protecting the environment. It ensures that the soil is not left bare by providing regetation, lives the soil shelter from direct impart, plant roots hold the soil parties together to form soil aggregate, thereby improving soil structure and making serious erosion less likely.

This reduces the severity of erosion, but with man’s continued destruction of natural vegetation in his quest to satisfy his own desires, this natural protection of the soil is rapidly disappearing. As a result, soil erosion has become widespread throughout the world. This intern has heard the consequences of causing irreparable harm to the environment and others, as well as destroying the natural landscape.

Another natural factor is the world’s land area rapidly desertifying. Because of the low and unreliable precipitation rate, this frequently results in arid and semi-arid zones. Vegetable growth is limited in this location due to the lack of available moisture. As a result, the soil is bare and dry, exposing it to the weather element of wind, which blooms unhindered across it.

This loosens the soil particles, resulting in a friable (easily chattered) soil structure that is essentially sandy and agriculturally ineffective. Dissertation is a vain that has been enhanced by man’s activities such as overgrowing the land, continuous tillage, and deforestation, all of which only remove the vegetation cover and expose the soil elements. weather Other factors that have a negative impact on the environment include earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Earthquakes, which are the unfortunate violent movement of the earth’s surface, frequently result in land slides. This destroys the land and everything on it, including human lives, buildings, and vegetation. It also destroys the land’s natural topography. Volcanic eruption is the release of molten inorganic lava from the earth’s “belly,” which forces its way to the surface and causes significant environmental degradation or damage.

Molten lava flows from the earth’s core to the surface, forming extrusive igneous rock. Many harmful gases may be emitted into the environment during the eruption, destroying or endangering life. As a result of some of his activities, such as mining for minerals and building dams for irrigation, man causes the occurrence of these otherwise natural phenomena.

1.2.2 The Man-Made Sources

These are the primary contributors to environmental degradation. They include all activities that are harmful to the environment but do not have an origin, that is, events that would not have occurred in normal circumstances. There are numerous artificial sources of environmental degradation (damage), but they all have one thing in common: “man.”

This is due to the fact that man is the sole and most important actor in the environmental scene. Its various efforts to make life more comfortable for himself have a direct impact on the environment and all other degradation factors. Some of the human activities that degrade the environment include:

1.2.2.1 Housework and Chores

Man generates a large amount of waste and garbage in the course of his daily domestic activities in the home, which he discharges into the environment. Man generates so much household waste that if it is not properly disposed of, it has a negative impact on the environment. In Nigeria, for example, the volume of household waste disposed of indiscriminately has resulted in the blockage of drainage and river channels.

As a result of the flood disaster, lives and property were lost, as was the case in the “Ogunpa” river flood disaster in Ibadan in 1980, when lives were lost and property was destroyed. Furthermore, if household waste, including human excrement, is not properly disposed of, it can emit harmful gases such as Amonia sulfur (v) oxide and hydrogen sulphide, particularly during decomposition.

When household waste, particularly human excrement, is disposed of in water containing marine life, it contaminates the organisms that feed on it, rendering it unfit for human consumption. Some diseased conditions may also be caused in livestock, such as cattle, when they consume food contaminated with human feces containing tapeworm eggs.

1.2.2.2 Agricultural Activity

This includes the use of men to till the soil for crop husbandry and keep animals. As the human population grows, agricultural activities become more intensive in order to meet the growing food demand of the growing population. Due to a scarcity of virgin forest for cultivation, this intensified farming has resulted in a continuous cropping of the sea piece of land over time.

It has also meant growing one crop on a large amount of land where the crop species thrives. This has resulted in an increase in the number of pests, animals, and diseases attacking such crops, as well as a rapid depletion of the nutrients available to the crop on such soil. To address the problems, man’s response was to apply various chemicals such as pesticides, fumigates, and inorganic fertilizers to such farms.

Pesticides, in addition to being harmful to humans when inhaled or ingested, have other negative effects on the environment. Furthermore, once the necessary nutrients have been taken up by the soil, the remaining fertilizer may cause the soil to become acidic, rendering it unsuitable for crop cultivation.

Agriculture has also exacerbated the occurrence of other environmental hazards such as erosion and desertification by removing soil cover through tillage and overgrazing of land. It also destroys the structure, rendering the land unfit for other uses.

Deforestation (1.2.2.3)

Many useful products can be obtained from the natural forest. It is home to a variety of wild animals, which provide bush meat and other products for humans. The wood from the trees is used as a fuel source as well as for furniture and other purposes.

The forest also acts as a windbreak and vegetation cover, protecting the soil from erosion. More importantly, the forest plays an important role in the precipitation process as well as the important “carbon circle,” a break in which man’s existence is threatened.

The rapid destruction of the forest due to farming and other human activities is causing significant environmental damage by depriving it of the important roles that the forest plays in the ecosystem’s stabilization.

1.2.2.4 Game Hunting and Excess Fishing

A chain exists in the natural food cycle to ensure that the ecosystem maintains equilibrium. This prevents some organisms from becoming overpopulated and others from becoming extinct. However, due to man’s continued hunting of some animals for food and other purposes, their populations are nearly extinct, denying the environment the benefit of their natural roles in the ecosystem.

The African elephant is under threat of extinction, prompting the World Wildlife Fund to launch a campaign to stop it from being hunted.

Commercial Activities 1.2.2.5

Men engage in a variety of commercial activities, particularly with the advancement of technology and transportation, and as a result, many advertisements such as billboards, handbills, and so on litter the environment, which is an eyesore to other nations. Furthermore, the various commercial transactions generate a large amount of waste, which has a negative impact on the environment. Specifically, indiscriminate use and disposal of cellophane bags.

1.2.2.6 Industrialisation

The advancement of scientific knowledge has resulted in the industrialization of society with the goal of making man’s life more comfortable by producing the majority of those goods efficiently and in sufficient quantity. This has resulted in the expansion of many industries that generate waste that is harmful to the environment.

When toxic emissions from industries that burn fuels and even motors are inhaled, they have devastating effects on the life farm. Acid rain is a nightmare for those who live near industries that emit some toxic emissions. Untreated industrial waste effluent discharged into streams has been known to kill marine life and damage crops irrigated with water from such streams.

Waste from substances such as mercury and its compounds has an impact on the lives of humans, plants, and animals. The extent of mercury’s dangers was realized by the Japanese in 1986, when one industry processing methyl mercury discharged its waste into a lake, killing thousands of villagers who ate lake fish.

Their women gave birth to deformed children, and poisonous gas leakages have had lethal consequences. This year marks the 20th anniversary of the poisonous gas leakage from the union carbide cooperation.

Urbanization (1.2.2.7)

With industrialization and urbanization, many people are flocking to cities in search of greener pastures. This causes a population explosion in those areas, which increases the amount of waste produced and other activities that harm the environment.

As a result, carbon dioxide and other hazardous gases are released into the urban atmosphere. Because of the dense population, there is enough land for everyone. As a result, various shanks are constructed on the open spaces to serve as accommodation. These not only pollute the environment, but they may also cause soil erosion where channels are blocked.

Power Station (1.2.2.8)

These include hydroelectric power plants, thermal power plants, and nuclear power plants. The vibration produced by these stations is so great that it disturbs the environment and causes inconveniences around such sites. There are many radioactive materials on nuclear sites that take many years to degrade. Accidents at nuclear power plants can occur, resulting in significant loss of life and property.

The devastation caused by atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, is a gruesome reminder of the Second World War. The most recent chemical disaster in Russia in 1986 devastated a 16-kilometer arching of the environment surrounding the nuclear reactor site.

However, there are no longer any life forms, flora, or fauna in the area, and many people and livestock, even in the neighboring country, were exposed to an unprecedented level of reaction and either died or had to be destroyed.

1.2.2.9 Pollution from Petroleum

Petroleum, a priced commodity, has been used in the industrialization of the world. However, the commodity’s exploitation has had numerous negative effects on the environment. Petroleum pollution is a common occurrence, particularly in the area where it is found.

Oil spills occur, which frequently pollute rivers, streams, and farmland, rendering them unfit for biotic life. During the transportation process, oil pollution has occurred in the high seas due to an accident or a problem with the vessel transporting the oil. It is estimated that over 3.5 million tons of oil are released into the world’s oceans each year.

There have been numerous reports of oil pollution in Nigeria. On the 17th of December 1980, there was a Texaco funiwa, fire oil blow out in Nigeria in the Niger-Delta, and it was curtailed after 30 days of conflict fire, for some hours, about 200, 000 barrels of oil were lost far villages including fishes in the town of funiwa and segama river were polluted and 350 hectares of land were destroyed.

On November 2, 1982, a pale loader belonging to Bronelli Construction Company accidentally ripped a hole in the Nigeria National Petroleum Cooperation (NNPC) under ground corche oil pipe line, resulting in the Abudo oil pipeline spillage. The oil flowed from it to nearly villages, polluting their land and water, causing crop failure and drying up, as well as the death of marine life and soils.

Another oil spill occurred in July 1984 at Upheli from a field, which took six days to clean up after polluting neighboring rivers and villages. Another example is the koko incident, which occurred in Delta State in June 1988 when 3,888 tons of assorted toxic waste from Italy were discovered illegally dumped at the fishing ports of koko lea cheats, causing extensive ecological damage.

Further long-term deterioration of the village’s health is still feared. There was also the Jesse fire disaster on October 17th, 1998, which claimed over 100 lives and destroyed over 100 homes. Also on January 12, 1999, the idotio spillage in Akwa-Ibom State occurred, affecting twenty communities across states, and there had been reported cases of oil pipe leakage throughout the country, causing massive destruction to the environment and lives.

Flaring of natural gas has resulted in an increase in the temperature of gas-producing communities and the destruction of biotic life, as seen in Nigeria’s Niger Delta. War, irrigation, and drainage are other man-made sources of environmental degradation.

CONCLUSION

The fundamental causes of environmental degradation discussed above, however, are not exhaustive, demonstrating that the onus is on individuals to protect their environment. As a result, environmental awareness is a necessary prerequisite for attaching environmental protection.

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COMPENSATION IN NIGERIA FOR ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION AND ITS EFFECTS

Abstract

Municipal solid waste collection, re-use, and recycling have multiple socio-economic and environmental benefits that have not been adequately examined in Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria. The objectives of this research are to: examine the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of waste management entrepreneurs; identify the sources and destinations of recyclable municipal solid waste; analyze the number of waste materials (metal scraps, plastics, and cans) recovered, reused and transported for recycling; identify the type of uses recyclable materials are put into in the study area and examine the socioeconomic benefit of waste re-use and recycling.

A total of 252 scrap metal/plastic collectors, scavengers, and artisanal recyclers were studied using purposive and snowball sampling techniques. Tables, percentages, charts and multiple linear regression techniques were used for the analysis. The results showed that the majority of the waste collectors within the twelve localities of Zaria were less than 20 years old. Generally, the low educational level of the respondents indicates that formal educational qualification is not a major determinant of being an actor in this type of business… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

The term waste has a different meaning for different people. In general, waste is unwanted for the person who discards it; a product or material that does not have a value anymore for the first user and is therefore thrown away. But unwanted is subjective and the waste could have value for another person in a different circumstance, or even in a different culture (Van de Klundert and Justine, 2001).

There are many large industries that operate primarily or exclusively using waste materials such as paper and metals as their industrial raw materials. In the context of Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM), waste is regarded both as valueless and as a useful material providing a potential source of income. This real value of waste in many low-and middle-income countries (developing countries) is confirmed by the huge informal sector that lives on waste collection and recovery (Van de Klundert and Justine, 2001)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of the Research Problem

In the pursuit of sustainable waste management, the prevention of waste generation is the first priority, followed by waste recovery and safe disposal of waste on the hierarchy of principles for waste management (Figure 1.1). These principles need to be put in practice through joint waste prevention and management measures if growing environmental degradation is to be avoided.

For example, the use of valuable land for waste disposal, the release of harmful substances from landfills and waste transports into air, soil and water… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Objectives of the Study

The aim of the study is to evaluate the potential for municipal solid waste re- use/recycling as waste management strategies in Zaria metropolis to create wealth and promote a sustainable environment. The specific objectives are to:

• Examine the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of waste management entrepreneurs (WMEs) in the study area… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

Conceptual Issues

• Scavenging

A waste picker is a person who collects reusable or recyclable materials discarded by others to sell or for personal utilization. Many terms are used to refer to people who salvage recyclables from the waste stream for sale or personal utilization.

These terms include informal resource recoverer, salvager, reclaimer, waste picker, recycler, and scavenger. Although the term scavenger is also commonly used, but many waste pickers find it demeaning due to the implied comparison  with  animals  (Samson,  2008)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Re-use

Re-use is a process by which discarded materials like plastic bottles, sachet water bags, glass, paper, woody furniture, scrap metals, etc. in their original form are utilized or sold to other users who need them. In other words, re-use is simply using materials for something other than the purpose for which they were originally designed (Bill, 2009). Re-use can be a creative process for using an item rather than throwing it away… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Conceptual Framework

There is no over-arching approach or single solution identified that has completely answered the question of what to do with solid waste both in developed and developing countries. The attitudes of people in different countries vary regarding waste management practice.

The diversity of communities and their waste is one reason why no single approach to waste management has been accepted as “the best” method. Since there is no preferred method, every community must create its own “best approach” in dealing with its waste. However, all communities have the same alternatives (Palczynski and Scotia, 2002)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

METHODOLOGY

This section discusses the various methods that were employed in generating data for the study. It focuses on the types of data needed, the sources of data, the sampling design, and the methods of data analysis. A reconnaissance survey was conducted to generate information on the following:

Types of data required

• Socio-economic and demographic characteristics of WMEs;
• Cost of conveying recyclable and reusable materials to destinations;… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Sources of Data

• Primary Source of Data

Questionnaire and structured interviews as well as, informal discussions and observations were used to collect data from twelve localities in the study area. The selected localities include: Samaru, Palladan, Basawa, Gyllesu, Muchia, Chikaji, Wusasa, Dogarawa, Sabon-Gari, Tudun Wada, Gaskiya and Zaria city (see Figure 3.1).

These are expected to give an understanding of the activity of waste management entrepreneurs (WMEs), the reasons for their actions and the intended outcomes of the actions… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

• Secondary Source of Data

Additional information was obtained from available literature to enrich the theoretical conceptualization of the work. The available literatures include: related books, journals, published and unpublished texts… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESULTS FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

• Socio-Economic and Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

A total number of 252 solid waste collectors were involved in the study. Their socio-economic characteristics have inference on solid waste collection and were discussed under age, gender, educational and marital categories and religion. Other issues are income and ethnic composition.

• Age of respondents

The study established that the majority of the waste collectors (engaged inn waste collection), about 46.4% within the twelve localities of Zaria, were less than 20 years old. Those between 21-30 years account for 34.5% while the least is 1.2% which covers 60 years and above. About 10.3%, 5.6%, 2.0%, are between 31-40 years, 41-50 years, and 51 – 60 year respectively. While all age groups are represented, the majority are youths, accounting for nearly half of the sampled population (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1: Age of respondents

Source: Field survey, 2012

• Sex of respondents

The survey shows that 82.9% of the respondents who were males mostly involved in all waste activities (scrap metal and plastic bottle collection, scavenging and artisanal recycling). Furthermore, about 17.1% of the respondents were females that engaged in plastic bottle collection and cans collection. None of the women was involved in scrap metal collection and artisanal recycling… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

WASTE COLLECTION, REUSE AND RECYCLING

• Sources of waste

Table 4.3 shows that 71.8% of waste collectors (engaged in waste collection) collect from multiple sources comprising households, institutions, landfill/dumpsites, restaurants etc compared to single sourcing of usable materials. Among the single sources, however, 15.1%, 10.7% and 2.4% respectively source from institutions, restaurants and households.

Using multiple sources by the scavengers, artisanal recyclers, plastic bottle and scrap metal collectors provide a variety and large quantity of recyclable materials which improve their income. It is important to note that, especially in institutions or households, scavengers purchase valuable waste from the owners; this is however based on weighing the recyclables to know the exact quantity (see Plate I and II).

But in the words  of  some  of  the  respondents  ― negotiation  at  times  does  exist  depending  on  the  quantity seen with the eye and not on measurement using weighing balance‖. The waste generated can be ascribed to the urban standard of living in the 12 localities sampled. Generally, manufactured products in iron, aluminum and plastic packaging are affordable and consumed by residents in the areas leading to waste materials.

Table 4.3: Source(s) of waste material

Source: Field survey, 2012

Plate I: Young waste depot worker weighing scrap metals in Tudun Wada.

Source: Field survey, 2012

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• Destinations of retrieved waste materials

Table 4.5 revealed that as high as 83.7% dispose of their materials within Zaria. These are mainly scavengers, plastic and scrap metal collectors. Moreover, some plastic collectors as stated in Table 4.7 and products from artisanal recyclers are spatially distributed or utilized both within and outside the study area… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Table 4.5: Destinations of Retrieved Waste Materials

Source: Field survey, 2012

Plate VIII: Uploading a truck for transportation out of Zaria at Samaru

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CHALLENGES IN WASTE MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES

All the respondents claimed that the government has not in any way come to their aid in terms of provision of a functional recycling plant in Zaria; trucks that will convey the valuable materials to the required destination at a subsidized rate; protectors especially to scavengers or even pay every individual involved in waste management for keeping the environment clean… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusion

By adopting the wealth aspect from waste collection or treating solid wastes as resources, in terms of waste management strategy has effectively become not only a service but an instrument for alleviating poverty. The government should not only conceive waste management as a means of service delivery but a war against poverty and a poor living environment.

The future prospect of scrap metal/plastic collection, scavenging, and artisanal recycling is envisaged to be prosperous and can offer livelihood opportunities for poor people if the process of the collection remains unaltered… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Recommendations

The study has shown the characteristics of solid waste re-use/recycling as a waste management strategy as well as the potentials to create wealth and promote sustainable waste management in Zaria metropolis. Based on such findings, recommendations were developed to promote solid waste re-use/recycling situation in Zaria metropolis… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REFERENCES

Adebola, O. O. (2006). The Role of Informal Private Sector in Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) in Lagos, Nigeria – A Developing Country. Philadelphia P.A, Proceeding of the 21^st International Conference on Solid Waste Technology and Management, 1(1): 1-8. (Waste Collection)

Adeyemi, A.S. Olorunfemi, J.F. and Adewoye, T.O. (2001). Waste Scavenging in Third World Cities: A case study in Ilorin, Nigeria. The Environmentalist, 21 (2): 93-96. (Waste Collection)

Adisa, (2000) In: Muktar, M. (2011). The Economics of Waste Scavenging in Kano State. (Waste Collection)

Department of Economics, Bayero University, Kano- Nigeria. Pp. 4-5. (Waste Collection)

Ado, M. (1998) In: Muktar, M. (2011). The Economics of Waste Scavenging in Kano State.

Department of Economics, Bayero University, Kano- Nigeria. Pp. 4-5. (Waste Collection)

Agarwal, A. Singhmar, A. Kulshrestha, M. and Mittal, A.K. (2005). Municipal Solid Waste Recycling and Associated Markets in Delhi, India: Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 44 (1): 73-90. (Waste Collection)

Agunwamba, J.C. (2003). Analysis of Scavengers’ Activities and Recycling in some Cities. (Waste Collection)

European Union (EU), (2005). Communication From the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions – Taking sustainable use of resources forward – A Thematic Strategy on the Prevention and Recycling of Waste, COM(2005) 666 Final. Accessed from: (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2005:0666:FIN:EN:PDF) on 1 July 2011. (Waste Collection)

European Environment Agency (EEA), (2011). Waste Opportunities; Past and Future Climate Benefits from Better Municipal Waste Management in Europe, Annual European Union Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990–2009 and Inventory Report 2011, EEA Technical Report No 2/2011, European Environment Agency. Accessed from: (http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/european-union-greenhouse-gas-inventory-2011) on 1 July 2011. (Waste Collection)

Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI), (2007). Delhi Ranks Poorly in Solid Waste Management. FICCI in News. Business Line, February 22, 2007. Accessed from: http://www.ficci.com/news/viewnews1.asp?news_id=949 on 12/08/08. (Waste Collection)

Fofana M. (2009). Program Officer Natural Resources Management, Swedish International Development Cooperation (SIDA), Bamako, Personal communication. (Waste Collection)

Gbekor, A. (2003). Domestic Waste Management. Ghana Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Newsletter, 47 (5). Accra: Ghana EPA. (Waste Collection)

Gill, K. (2007). Interlinked Contracts and Social Power: Patronage and Exploitation in India‘s Waste Recovery Market. Journal of Development Studies, 43 (8): 1448-1474. (Waste Collection)

Gilpin, A. (1996). Dictionary of Environment and Development. Chester and New York, John Wiley and Sons. (Waste Collection)

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ABSTRACT

The study found out that the condition of shopping bag littering has gone from bad to worse due to unchecked littering. Besides visual pollution, Plastic shopping bag litter is non-biodegradable and thus accumulates. Its disposal method is a challenge as Plastic shopping bag waste recycling is not economically viable. Plastic shopping bag litter contributes to a blockage of sewers and drainages, poses a threat to biotic species and abiotic components when incinerated, buried, or dumped.

Furthermore, when filled with rainwater, Plastic shopping bag paper bags litter become breeding grounds for mosquitoes, which cause malaria. In landfills, it acts as a habitat for vectors that transmits pathogens like flies and rodents.  There is no immediate alternative that is likely to replace Plastic shopping bags in the near future… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

According to the International Facility Management Association (IFMA), “FM is the practice of coordinating the physical workplace with the people and work of the organization”. It integrates the principles of business administration, architecture and the behavioral and engineering sciences FM covers these two main areas: ‘Space & Infrastructure’ (such as planning, design, workplace, construction, lease, occupancy, maintenance, furniture, and cleaning) and ‘People & Organization’ (such as catering, ICT, HR, accounting, marketing, hospitality).

Sustainability is also an important aspect of FM practice, it deals with conserving and enhancing the community’s resources so that ecological processes on which lives depend are maintained and the total quantity of life now and in the future can be increased. “We do not inherit the earth from our ancestor we borrow it from our children” (Iroquois Nation – Sustainability, Facility Management & IFMA 2012), a facility management professionals must focus on ecologically sustainable development in areas such as waste reduction, recycling, energy and resource management, and other similar strategies.

As the demand for environmentally friendly and high-performance buildings escalates, it is also essential to study some of the practices in our wider community that currently contribute to an unnatural deterioration of the environment at either local or global levels. This project thus seeks to study the impact of polythene and Plastic shopping bags waste on our environment especially as it affects Lagos state… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Statement of Problems

Plastic shopping bag pollution is a problem that has truly ‘gone global’. Fragment of plastics has been carried by planetary-scale ocean currents to the remotest corners of the world, including both Arctic and Antarctic wilderness areas. Action is needed at a range of scales to address the degradation of Earth’s oceans and shorelines by Plastic shopping bag debris (Simon Oakes 2010)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Research Objectives

The aim of this study is to examine the impact of polythene and Plastic shopping bags on the Lagos environment and show the reason why producing biodegradable Plastic shopping bags is the only way to reduce drastically the current huge polythene and Plastic shopping bags waste being generated in Lagos State.

The specific research objectives are as follows:

1. To analyses the impact of waste generated through polythene and Plastic shopping bags in
2. To assess the contribution of recycling and incineration of polythene and plastics bags in the elimination of the current 23% Plastic shopping bag waste being generated in Lagos… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

Conceptual Review

Littering is a condition where waste is strewn or scattered about; resulting in a condition of disorder or untidiness (Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 1997). Accordingly, Plastic shopping bag litter consists of waste Plastic shopping bag carrier bag that has been disposed of improperly, in an inappropriate location by means of throwing the waste Plastic shopping bag onto the ground as opposed to disposing of them properly.

The distinction between dumping and littering is defined by volume, the location of the disposed waste, or the method of waste disposal, (Collins Thesaurus Dictionary, 2002)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

The Origin and Global Spread of Plastic Shopping Bag

Plastic shopping bags were designed and made from a Plastic shopping bag by Swedish engineer Sten Gustaf Thulin in the 1960s . The design was patented worldwide by Celloplast; a well-established company in plastics processing in 1965 (Cherrier,2006). The Company’s patent position gave it a virtual monopoly on plastic shopping bag production, and the company set up manufacturing plants across Europe and in the US.

Other companies saw the attraction of the Plastic shopping bag, too, and the US petrochemicals group Mobil overturned Celloplast’s US patent in 1977… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Theoretical Framework:

This study was be informed by the structural-functional theory of social change, the theory of social disorganization, anomie or strain theory, and learning theory of behaviorism.

• Structural –functional Theory of Social Change

Social change refers to modifications of the way people seek ultimate meaning in life (Gerth, 1953). According to Gerth (1953), these modifications may include, the introduction of new techniques, new ways of making a living, and changes in place of residence, new innovations, ideas, and social values. Many sociologists view social change as a change in the structure of society or alteration of the social structure (Ginsberg, 1958).

Others stress that social change is not only a change in the structure but also in the functioning of society, (Allen, l97l). Social change is also conceptualized as the process of planned or unplanned qualitative or quantitative alterations in social phenomena, (Vago, 1996)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Research Design

Research design is a comprehensive master plan of the research study to be undertaken, giving a general statement of the methods to be used. The function of a research design is to ensure that requisite data in accordance with the problem at hand is collected accurately and economically, (Adams (1985).

Adams (1985) describes research design as an understanding of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a way that combines their relationships with the research to the economy of procedures. Adams (1985) suggests that research design deals with the detailing of procedures that will be adopted to carry out the research study… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Introduction

This study presents the data analysis and interpretation of the results. The analysis was done as per questionnaires that were used to collect data. The study targeted a population of 120 respondents and they all responded giving a response rate of 100% which according to Mugenda Mugenda (1993) a response rate of more than 80% is sufficient enough for the study.

Gender of the respondents

The respondents were asked to show their gender. This was expected to guide the researcher on the conclusions regarding the degree of congruence of responses with the gender characteristics. Figure 4.1 below shows the study finding.

Figure 4.1: Gender Response

The results as in figure 4.1 show that majority of the respondent were female at 55% while the male was 45%. The results of gender distribution indicate that the female gender is more than men in Apapa. It can be attributed to the number of factors such as environment gender adaptation, gender urbanization, and natural sex ratio theory of 1:5. Generally in any society, if the ratio of men: women remain at 1:1; the society is likely to experience a strain in the co-existence equilibrium… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material) 

Distribution of Age Group

The respondents were asked to disclose their age. The figure below shows the study findings:

Figure 4.2: Plastic shopping bag Usage by Age

The results presented in figure 4.2 show that a large proportion of 46.7% of the respondents was aged between the ages of 21 to 30 years; this was followed by a significant percentage 33.3% that were aged between 31-40 years. 8.3% were aged 41-50 years, 5% were aged 18-20 years 4.2% were aged 61-70 while 2.5% were aged between 51-60 years.

The conclusion drawn from the above table indicates that the majority of the Apapa residents are primarily young people who should be given adequate considerations in finding solutions to Plastic shopping bag littering… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusion

The process of urbanization in Nigeria has provided the impetus for social disorganization or anomie. The result is that the collective purposes of the society are less fully realized than they could be under a different, better-organized system. When there is no provision of a shared set of priorities among these competing obligations, the individual’s behavior has become unpredictable in the urban setup.

The anomy existing in the urban set up has been exploited by the capitalist to sell their merchandize uncontrollably. Capitalism is an open-ended, internally contradictory process and it produces manifest and latent functions that are difficult to predict and control. Capitalism has dynamics that are driving social changes that are full of new risks called “manufactured risks” that are incalculable in origin and indeterminate in their consequences.

These risks are created by the impact of human knowledge and technology on the natural world… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

Recommendation

Because there is no roadmap to these new dangers and risks for capitalism, modernity or urbanization that has resulted in Plastic shopping bag littering impacting on biotic species and abiotic components adversely, individuals, counties, organizations and the government of Nigeria including the international community of states also known as “global risk society” must negotiate risks as they make choices how to live is to be lived… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

REFERENCES

Aadland, D. & Caplan, A. (2006), Curbside recycling: waste resource or a waste of resources? Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 25(4) 855-874.

Adams, G.and Schvaneveldt.1985.Understanding Research Methods, Longman Inc.New York. Akullian, A., Karp, K., & Austin, D. (2006). Durbin, Plastic shopping bag externalities and policy in Rhode Island. Brown Policy Review.

Allen Francis R.Social- Cultural Dynamics: An Introduction to Social Change.New York: Macmillan,1971.

Allen, F.B (1990), Social-Cultural Dynamics: An introduction to Social Change MA polity press Amani Mehdi, The Urban Explosion, UNESCO Currier, 1992. (Shopping Bags)

Bahri,D. & Girum, S. (2005). Sustainable Management of Plastic shopping bag Waste: The Case of Lagos, Nigeria. IIIEE Reports: 03, Sweden. Banks, Sam, 2008. Plastic shopping bags: Reducing Their Use Through Regulation and Other Initiatives. Report for Parliament of Canada: Industry, Infrastructure, and Resources Division. (Shopping Bags)

Beychok, Milton R. (January 1987). “A database for dioxin and furan emissions from refuses incinerators”. Atmospheric Environment 21 (1): 29–36. (Shopping Bags)

Bhari Girum: Thesis on Sustainable Management of Waste: Case Study of Lagos, Sept 2005. (Shopping Bags)

Bjerkli, C. L. (2005). The cycle of Plastic shopping bag waste: an analysis of the informal Plastic shopping bag recovery system: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. (Shopping Bags)

Bogdom.R and S.Biken 1992. Qualitative Research for Education. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, USA. (Shopping Bags)

Bohm, Roberts M. Introduction to Criminal Justice. Department of Criminal Justice and Legal Studies University of Central Florida, Orlando,1996. (Shopping Bags)

Borg and Gall.1993. Education Research.An Introduction. Longman, New York. (Shopping Bags)

Carroll, AB. Business and Society: Ethics and Stakeholder Management, South-Western: Cincinnati, Ohio, 1992. Chambers English Dictionary 2000. (Shopping Bags)

Chandran, (2004). Research Methodology. World Scientific Ltd. London Changsha Norbu Consultancy, (2009). Study on Poly Bags and Strategies to Reduce Their Use. Prepared for the Royal Society for Protection of Nature. Bhutan. (Shopping Bags)

Cherrier, H. (2006). Consumer identity and moral obligations in non-plastic shopping bag consumption: a dialectical perspective, International Journal of Consumer Studies Vol 30 No. 5 pg 515– 523. (Shopping Bags)

Clapp J, Swanston L, Williams J (2008). Single-use Plastic shopping bag shopping bags: Issues for the region of Waterloo to consider. University of Waterloo, Faculty of Environmental Studies, Waterloo, USA. Vol.1, pp. 2-13 (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Chapter One to Five Project Material)

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ABSTRACT

In this research project, the various nail was subjected to six environments so as to check the effect of the environments on corrosion of the nails. Two sets of nails were used; normal nail and concrete nail. Six of each type while the other not coated. The research was carried out in the physical chemistry laboratory of the institute of management and technology. The environments used are the acidic solution, alkaline solution, salt solution, boiled water, air medium, and lubricating oil medium… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

INTRODUCTION

In its broadest sense, the term corrosion applied to the destructive alteration of a metal or alloy by chemical reaction with any substance, solid, liquid, or gas. The pattern of attack will be governed largely by the combined influence of several factors relating to the metal or alloy, to the conditions of service, and to the chemical nature of the environment.

1. The metal may corrode uniformly over its entire surface, as in the resting of iron in the atmosphere.
2. It may suffer only a superficial attack that does not seriously affect the strength of the metal or alloy but does discolor the surface, as in the tarnishing of silver in the atmosphere.
3. Corrosion may develop at local areas on an otherwise unattached surface, leading to pitting that may in some instances result in early failure by perforation.
4. An alloy may be attacked in such a way as to remove one or more of its constituents, leaving a weakened residue of an unattached element with poor metallic properties, as in the dezincification of yellow brass or in the graphitization of cast iron.
5. Excessive corrosion may occur in local areas where poor design features tend to aggravate the corrosion conditions, as crevices under rivets, bolts, and faying surface.
6. The use of dissimilar metals sometimes can lead to a severe attack of the more active metal where they are joined together.
7. High tensile stresses plus specific corrosive conditions may result in cracking of a metal because of a corrosion reaction along critical paths in the metal.

In order to provide a quantitative basis for reporting corrosion rates and intensity of the attack, the average weight loss of metal per unit area per unit time or the loss in thickness per unit time is usually recorded… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

Research Objectives

The objective of this study is based on the fault that corrosion which has been a major problem in our modern industries has to be prevented and curbed to the barest minimum by putting its environment into consideration in selecting material a structure or piece equipment.

Significance of the Research

A complete understanding of corrosion phenomena in all fact requires intensive and prolonged study. However, general knowledge of the subject can be gained by the engineer through a review or survey of the various ways in which corrosion manifest itself, the factors that govern the corrosion process, and the means available to the engineer for controlling or preventing corrosion… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

LITERATURE REVIEW

There are several environmental factors that influence Steel materials exposed to the atmosphere. The degree of impact of these factors on the exposed materials depends on the intensity and concentration of these factors at each location and can also be a combined effect of interrelated environmental factors on the Steel.

Effect of Sea Water Salt on the Corrosion of Corrosion of Steel

Chloride ions are often found in industrial areas and exist as one of the most vital and common atmospheric corrosive agents [16, 17]. The presence of the chloride ions in the atmosphere can influence the corrosion of the Steel pipeline exposed to atmospheric conditions and may lead to the failure of the entire pipeline system [18-20].

In the atmospheric corrosion process of the Steel pipeline, corrosion is initiated by droplets of atmospheric water mostly from the seashore, coupled with residual stress imposed on the pipeline system due to the transportation of petroleum products, which often results in chloride-induced SCC [21]. Several studies have been carried out on the corrosion behavior of different steel materials exposed in the chloride environment [22-24]… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

Figure 1: Corrosion Rate of Steel in Different Atmosphere Conditions [5]

On examination of the steel sample, the result revealed that Cl^_ ion influenced the corrosion rate, morphology, and composition of the Steel material as shown in Figure 1.

Sea salt water is commonly used in many applications as sodium chloride and calcium chloride and has been dated back to the early centuries. The usage has an associated amount of damage to some structures existing within the atmospheric environment as reported by several researchers [25-28]. Sea salt has been reported as one of the predominant environmental contaminants that corrode the Steel pipeline especially in the coastal areas where the sea salt concentration is relatively high [29]… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

Figure 2: Variation in The Corrosion Rate of Steel With Distance from the Shore [31]

Other researchers have also shown that the sea-salt contains some quantities of magnesium chloride and sodium chlorides which corrode the pipeline Steel at low humidity [33, 34]. Ericsson [34] revealed that a significant quantity of SO₂ is contained in sea salt water and can as well aggravate the corrosion rate of Steel. Another result from his study showed that the combination of SO₂ and sea salt water increased the corrosion rate several times more than the contribution of individual constituent [34]… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

Effect if Sulphide Dioxide on Corrosion of Steel Materials

Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) in addition to other environmental pollutants is one of the dominant constituents affecting the corrosion rates of Steel exposed to atmospheric conditions [35-37]. Misawa et al.[38] attempted to explain the basis of electrochemistry of sulfur dioxide and corrosion of steel materials in 1974. The effort of understanding the mechanism of atmospheric corrosion of steel materials was supported by group researchers [37] in 1997, where the aggressiveness of SO₂ on Steel materials was explored and detailed.

Several studies have been conducted on the effect of atmospheric SO₂ pollution on steel materials [7, 39, 40]. Leygraf et al. [41] reported that a significant amount of SO₂ deposited on the surface of Steel can result in the formation of the protective layer. The result further revealed that an increased amount of SO₂ can cause acidification of the aqueous layer, resulting in material anodic dissolution [41].

Other researchers have shown that the corrosion of steel materials due to the presence of SO₂ is an integral contribution of other parameters [42]… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH METHOD AND MATERIAL

Atmospheric Environment

The atmospheric environment in this context is a region of natural free air accessibility around the earth. Steel and other metals are more frequently exposed to the atmosphere than to any other corrosive environment. On a tonnage basis, atmospheric corrosion accounts for the greatest losses. This type of corrosion is also the oldest corrosion problem known to mankind.

The principal reason for this lies in the complexity of the variables, which determine the kinetics of the corrosion reactions. Thus corrosion rates vary from place to place, from hour to hour and from season to season. The approximate nominal composition of the atmosphere at a temperature of 38°C and pressure of 100KN/m² as given by Meetham (1956)

Moisture: For a given atmospheric condition, corrosion will be more severe the more humid and oxygenated it is. This is why exposed and unprotected steel structures are quite durable in arid regions but rapidly attacked in humid climates. The quantity of moisture required for rusting to occur need not be great. The corrosion reactions will proceed, albeit slowly on a steel surface in such minute quantity as to be invisible… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

From the foregoing discussions, it can be appreciated that different places, sites, or points around the globe have different atmospheric characteristics at different times or periods, which affect corrosion of steel, due mainly to variations in climatic conditions and levels of pollution of those places or sites. An exact detailed classification of the atmospheric environment for corrosion behavior of steel, for all times and for every location around the globe would be complex or impossible due to the complexity and variability of all the controlling factors with time and location.

Exact atmospheric conditions at a location may involve reliable instantaneous or automatic technological monitoring and analysis of the level of chemical pollution and climatic conditions of the location. However, laboratory, field, and service studies over the years have enabled engineers to identify four important influential atmospheres in corrosion behavior of steel; these are; inland rural atmospheric, inland industrial atmospheric, nominal marine atmospheric, and marine industrial atmospheric environments.

The inland rural atmospheric environment is any region of the atmosphere of more than two kilometers away from the coast that is not affected by industrial activities. These are essentially inland unpolluted environments. In other words, this environment is more or less nominal, and hence moisture containing dissolved oxygen is the primary corrosive agent. The only possible pollution of the environment could be from distant sources according to prevailing wind direction or topography… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

Effect of the operating conditions:

The operating conditions have an important influence. Generally, the facts involved are complex; they include temperature, rate of flow, design features, and stray currents. The temperature of water affects the rate of rusting in several ways. First, the corrosion process shares the general tendency of chemical reactions to increase in speed with rising temperatures. More important, however, are the effects of temperature on the nature and solubility of the corrosion products.

For example, a rise in temperature will often throw down a carbonate scale; moreover, it increases the rate of diffusion of oxygen through water but decreases the solubility of this gas. Some of these effects are conflicting, with the result that under certain laboratory conditions at least the rate of rusting/temperature curve for steel immersed in the water passes through a maximum before the boiling point is reached – at about 80°C in experiments made by Friend (Friend, 1940; Laque, 1975 and Shrier, 1979).

The rate of water flow is also very important. This determines the supply of oxygen to the rusting surface and may remove corrosion products that would otherwise stifle further rusting. Plentiful oxygen supply to the cathodic area will stimulate corrosion, but so may smaller supplies at a slow rate of flow, if this leads to the formation of differential aeration cells.

At sufficiently high rates of flow in natural waters enough oxygen may reach the surface to cause partial passivity, in which case the corrosion rate may decrease. In sea-water, owing to the high concentration of chloride ions, the corrosion rate increases with velocity (m/s). In one series of tests, corrosion under static conditions was 0.125 mm/year, 0.50mm/year at 1.52m/s and 0.83 mm/year at 4.572m/s (Shreir, 1979)… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Corrosion is the destructive attack of a material by reaction with its environment. The serious consequences of corrosion have become a problem of worldwide significance. In addition to our everyday encounters with this form of degradation, corrosion causes plants’ shutdowns, waste of valuable resources, loss or contamination of the product, reduction in efficiency of plants or systems, costly maintenance, and expensive overdesign. Furthermore, it jeopardizes the safety and inhibits technological progress.

Corrosion control is achieved by recognizing and understanding mechanisms by using corrosion-resistant materials and designs, and by protective systems, devices, and treatments. Corrosion of steel is the most important corrosion problem in the world’s socio-economic and technological development and accounts for about 90% of all corrosion problems worldwide.

Factors that influence the corrosion of steel are complex and vary from location to location, point to point, and time to time… (Scroll down for the link to get the Complete Project Material)

REFERENCE

Vera, R., B.M. Rosales, and C. Tapia, Effect of the exposure angle in the corrosion rate of plain Steel in a marine atmosphere. Corrosion Science, 2003. 45(2): p. 321-337.

Matsunami, K., T. Kato, and K. Sugimoto, Corrosion of Steel and its estimation in an aqueous solution used in petroleum refineries. International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping, 1991. 45(2): p. 179-197.

Okonkwo Paul, C. and C. Adel M, Mohamed., Erosion-Corrosion in Oil and Gas Industry: A Review. International Journal of Metallurgical & Materials Science and Engineering (IJMMSE), 2014. 4(3): p. 7-28.

Han, W., et al., Characterisation of initial atmospheric corrosion Steels by field exposure and laboratory simulation. Corrosion Science, 2007. 49(7): p. 2920-2935.

Ma, Y., Y. Li, and F. Wang, Corrosion of low Steel in atmospheric environments of different chloride content. Corrosion Science, 2009. 51(5): p. 997-1006.

Mendoza, A.R. and F. Corvo, Outdoor and indoor atmospheric corrosion of non-ferrous metals. Corrosion Science, 2000. 42(7): p. 1123-1147.

Oesch, S. and M. Faller, Environmental effects on materials: The effect of the air pollutants SO2, NO2, NO, and O3 on the corrosion of copper, zinc, and aluminum. A short literature survey and results of laboratory exposures. Corrosion Science, 1997. 39(9): p. 1505-1530.

Lan, T.T.N., et al., Atmospheric corrosion of Steel under field exposure in the southern part of Vietnam. Corrosion Science, 2006. 48(1): p. 179-192.

Castaño, J.G., et al., Atmospheric corrosion of Steel in Colombia. Corrosion Science, 2010. 52(1): p. 216- 223.

Nishimura, T., et al., Electrochemical Behavior of Rust Formed on Steel in a Wet/Dry Environment Containing Chloride Ions. Corrosion, 2000. 56(9): p. 935-941.

Dugstad, A., Mechanism of Protective Film Formation During CO2 Corrosion of Steel. 1998, NACE International.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 THE STUDY’S BACKGROUND

Rain is liquid water in the form of droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then precipitated, meaning that they have become heavy enough to fall due to gravity (Mordurch, 1995; Sala and Lauenroth, 1982). Rain is an important part of the water cycle because it is responsible for depositing the majority of the fresh water on Earth.

It supports a variety of ecosystems and provides water for hydroelectric power plants and crop irrigation. Many natural occurrences are influenced by rainfall. Rainfall influences the distribution of vegetation and the types of land masses (Ronen and Avinoam, 1999;Tielborger and Kadmon,2000; Shukla et al, 1990). Animal breeding seasons coincide with rainfall seasons (Radford and Du plessis 2003).

Crop planting, yields, and harvests are all influenced by rainfall and are carried out in accordance with their respective enabling seasons to ensure increased productivity (Laux et al, 2010; Mudita et al, 2008;Omokhafe and Emuedo 2006). Similarly, rainfall has a significant impact on the gaseous content of soil composition (Lee et al, 2002).

The term “rainfall trend” refers to a significant shift in the spatial and temporal patterns of rainfall. Rainfall trend, in other words, is the general tendency, movement, or direction and pattern of rainfall. Because of the scientific community’s focus on global climate change, rainfall trend analyses on various spatial and temporal scales have been of great concern in the past century: they indicate a small positive global trend, even though large areas are characterized by negative trends (IPCC, 1996).

According to Murphy and Timbal (2007), the majority of the rainfall decline (61 percent) occurred in autumn (March-May) in southeastern Australia. A similar rainfall decline occurred in the southwest of Western Australia around 1970, with many similarities to the decline in southeastern Australia.

However, Nicholson (2000) observed that one of the most significant contrasts in rainfall is the multi-decadal persistence of anomalies over northern Africa at the regional level. Nicholson and Grist (2001) identified several changes in the general atmospheric circulation that have coincided with the transition to drier conditions in the West African Sahel.

Rotstayn and Lohmann (2002) demonstrated that the drying of the Sahel in North Africa is a prominent feature, and they suggest that the indirect effects of anthropogenic sulfate may have contributed to the Sahelian drying trend (Akinremi et al 2001).

Rainfall variability, on the other hand, is the degree to which rainfall amounts vary over time or across an area. Rainfall variability can be used to characterize a region’s climate. Rainfall in Nigeria varies greatly both in time and in space. As a result of climate change, this variability has taken on a more pronounced dimension.

Rainfall variability increases from the northwest to the southwest, while between-year (yearly) rainfall variability increases from the north central to the southeast, according to Chidozie et al. This study confirms that the variability of rainfall over time follows a spatial trend within a specific arbitrary boundary (Laux et al, 2010, Mudita et al 2008).

Moisture moving along three-dimensional zones of temperature and moisture contrasts known as weather fronts is the primary cause of rain production. Precipitation can fall from convective clouds (those with strong upward vertical motion) such as cumulonimbus (thunder clouds) if there is enough moisture and upward motion.

Heavy precipitation is possible in mountainous areas where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, forcing moist air to condense and fall out as rainfall along the sides of the mountains. Due to the dry air caused by downslope flow, which causes heating and drying of the air mass, desert climates can exist on the leeward side of mountains.

Rainy seasons are brought to savannah climes by the movement of the monsoon trough or inter-tropical convergence zone (Laux et al, 2010, Mudita et al 2008). Downwind of cities, the urban heat island effect causes increased rainfall, both in quantity and intensity. Climate change is also causing changes in precipitation patterns around the world, including wetter conditions in Eastern North America and drier conditions in the tropics.

Olaniran (1990, 1992) and Olaniran and summer (1993) investigated rainfall characteristics in Nigeria for dominant trends (1989, 1990). They demonstrated that there has been a progressive early retreat of rainfall across the entire country, and consistent with this pattern, they reported a significant decline in rainfall frequency in September and October, which coincide with the end of the rainy season in the northern and central parts of the country, respectively.

Northern Nigeria’s rainfall pattern is highly variable in both spatial and temporal dimensions, with inter-annual variability ranging from 15% to 20%. (Oladipo, 1993). Because of the large inter-annual variability in rainfall, climate hazards, particularly floods and severe and droughts, with devastating effects on food production and associated calamities and sufferings, occur frequently (Oladipo, 1993; Okorie, 2003; Adejuwon, 2004).

Rainfall is one of Nigeria’s most important climatic resources. Rainfall was the primary source of water for crops and animals. It is regarded as the primary determinant of the types of crops that can be grown in the area, as well as the time period for cultivating such crops and the farming systems that can be used.

1.2 THE PROBLEM STATEMENT

Variations in rainfall trends are still hotly debated research topics. The major factors influencing rainfall trend and variability have been identified as global warming and climate change. Climate change, in particular, poses a significant threat to rainfall patterns, which will have an indirect or direct impact on ecosystems.

According to the Washington Department of Ecology, rising levels of carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere have warmed the Earth and are causing a wide range of effects, including rising sea levels, melting snow and ice, more extreme heat events, fires, and drought, and more extreme storms, rainfall, and floods.

Furthermore, scientists predict that rainfall variability will continue to accelerate, posing significant risks to human health, forests, agriculture, freshwater supplies, coastlines, and other natural resources critical to a country’s economy, environment, and quality of life.

Because climate affects so many systems, a change in climate can affect many related aspects of where and how people, plants, and animals live, such as food production, water availability and use, and health risks. Furthermore, a shift in the usual timing of rains or temperatures can influence when plants bloom and set fruit, insects hatch, or streams are at their fullest.

This can have an impact on historically synchronized crop pollination, food for migrating birds, fish spawning, water supplies for drinking and irrigation, forest health, and more (Todd et al 2001; Dominic et al 2004; Adams & Faure 1997).

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TRENDS IN RAINFALL AND VARIABILITY

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The World Health Organization (WHO) defined health as an individual’s complete physical, mental, social, and spiritual well-being, rather than the absence of diseases or infirmity (WHO, 1964). According to Ogbimi (2009), almost everything in the environment has an impact on an individual.

Similarly, health is an individual’s perfect state of physical, mental, social, and emotional well-being. Because health is viewed as an environmentally influenced state of well-being, it is necessary to consider people’s health as being directly influenced by their immediate environment.

Environmental health is a subfield of public health concerned with all aspects of the natural and physical environment that may have an impact on human health. It is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as those aspects of the human body, (human health), and disease that are determined by environmental factors (wikipedia, 2007).

The direct pathological agents and the effects on health and well-being of the broad physical, psychological, social, and aesthetic environment, which includes housing, urban development, land use, and transportation, have been the focus of environmental health. Hazardous materials, pollution, disaster, prehardness, food safety, waste management, and occupational health are all part of the scope of environmental health.

The impact of oil spills on the health of members in host communities where multinationals conduct massive oil drilling or exportation activities is one area of interest for researchers. The Niger Delta region of Nigeria has the highest concentration of such facilities.

According to Alagoa (1999) and Ekiyor (2006), the Niger Delta encompasses 70, 000 km2 of wet lands. It has a population of 20 million people and 40 ethnic groups, as well as diverse mangrove swamp forests, fresh water swamps, and low land rain forests. Dabbs (2006), on the other hand, stated that pollution from oil spills and gas flares affects both ecosystems and people.

Oil spills during petroleum exploration have poisoned this country’s waters and destroyed vegetation and agricultural land in the Niger Delta. However, since the discovery of the oil industry in Nigeria more than thirty years ago, there has been no serious and effective effort on the part of the government, let alone the oil operators, to control the environmental and health hazards associated with the industry.

According to Sola (2002), the worst type of pollution in Lagos State today, as well as riverine cities in Nigeria such as Bayelsa, is oil. In other words, he warned that potential oil company pollution of land and water poses a serious problem for oil-producing areas.

Between 1976 and 1996, an estimated 89 million barrels of petroleum were spilled into the Niger Delta region (Nwilo, 2009). The Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) estimates that 2,300 cubic meters of oil spills are injected into the environment each year. These estimates raise serious concerns about the host communities’ environmental health.

1.1 THE STUDY’S BACKGROUND

Brass Local Government Area is one of eight local governments in Bayelsa State that are major oil producers. Bayelsa State, with a population of approximately two million people, ranks among the top oil and gas producing areas in the country, accounting for more than 30 percent of total Nigerian oil production.

The state is riddled with oil wells. According to Jonathan (2003), oil exploration in Bayelsa State has increased since 1956, when oil was first discovered in commercial quantities in Oloibiri. Brass Local Government Area, which is the subject of this case study, is home to Agip Oil facilities in Town Brass, an Ijaw community that also serves as the state’s Brass Local Government headquarters.

Oil exploration grants such as Shell, Chevron, and Texaco all have flow stations in other local governments, and the study will investigate the management and control of health hazards resulting from oil spillage in the area.

1.2 THE PROBLEM’S STATEMENT

Oil spillage has been a source of contention between communities and multinational corporations since the discovery of oil at Oloibiri in Bayelsa State. According to a NOSDRA report from 2010, there were 3,203 oil spills in the Niger Delta. Between January 2006 and June 2010, the expansion of the country’s oil industry resulted in significant environmental health hazards in oil-producing areas of Bayelsa State.

Statistics paint a hazy picture of oil spills, which occur almost monthly. According to World Bank reports, the true amount of petroleum spilled into the environment is underestimated (World Bank, 1995).

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), environmental hazards are responsible for roughly one-quarter of the total global disease burden, and nearly 359 in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to the World Health Organization, improving the environment can prevent up to 13 million deaths (WHO, 2010).

The level of public outrage and disaffection among residents of oil-producing areas is directly related to the level of health hazards posed by oil spills. Despite growing government concern, accounts of research work done show that there is still insufficient data and information, as well as appropriate policies to manage the challenges (Onokeroraye, 2001).

Some findings released showed that the two key areas where intervention falls short are poverty alleviation and the possibility of increasing disease burden, which is the center of agitation among people who live around oil exploration areas in Niger Delta.

Much of the health consequences of oil spillage have remained unknown. Health risks are not well documented, and there appears to be insufficient health management apparatus to combat the growing burden of oil exploration activities in coastal areas. Recent oil spills in Brass Local Government, where the Nigeria Agip Oil Company (NADC) operates, which were reported in May 2009, have raised additional concerns, making it an ideal study area.

According to Ndubuisi and Asai (2007), despite growing concerns about the harm done to people’s health and various efforts to control the maintenance of oil spills, little has been done to mitigate the health risks posed by oil spills.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The study’s goal is to identify and assess health risks associated with oil spills in the study area, Brass Local Government Area in Bayelsa State.

1.4 THE STUDY’S IMPORTANCE

Environmental health research is ongoing, but this study will increase the capacity of research in the field of providing policymakers with legal framework material for law making. The government will also implement cost-effective and empowering methods of managing health hazards.

The academic will also be enlightened in this rarely investigated field of interest. The majority of research is conducted for the benefit of those who live and thrive in oil-producing regions. It is essential that the research findings contribute to the resolution of some of the health issues in the study area.

HYPOTHESIS 1.4

In the study area, there is no significant relationship between health hazards and oil spills.

H1: In the study area, there is a significant difference between health hazards and oil spills.

HO: There is no significant relationship between oil spill management levels and human health.

H1: There is a significant relationship between the level of oil spill management and human health.

HO: There is no significant relationship between oil spills and human disease burden.

H1: There is a significant relationship between oil spills and human disease burden.

1.5 QUESTIONS FOR RESEARCH

1. What is the level of oil spill management in the study area?

2. What precautions are taken to reduce the health risks posed by oil spills?

3. Who are the stakeholders in the study area’s management effort?

4. What are the most common health risks associated with oil spills in the study of man?

1.6 STUDY OBJECTIVES

The study was designed and organized to include a thorough examination of environmental health risks in oil-producing areas. The scope of the research is also limited to oil spillage because it interferes with the researcher’s human focus. As a result, gas flaring, another byproduct of oil exploration, is largely ignored.

1.7 TERMS DEFINITION

To avoid ambiguity, the following terms will be defined as they are used in this research context.

Management is the process of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling the efforts of an organization and its members in order to achieve set goals.

The environment is the sum of all external and internal conditions that affect the survival, growth, and well-being of organisms or one’s surroundings or external circumstances collectively.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), health is the complete state of physical, mental, and social well-being, not simply the absence of disease or infirmity. Furthermore, it is the state of a person’s body, mind, or state of being physically and mentally sound, or a condition in which they are free from illness, or the state of being well to be in good or poor health.

Hazards: Something that is dangerous and likely to harm an organism, animal, or human being’s health.

Exploration: The act of discovering, examining, and making the best use of something.

Oil exploration is the act of discovering or searching for oil in the ground in order to exploit its utility.

Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation is abbreviated as NNPC.

MEHH stands for Modern Environmental Health Hazards.

WHO stands for World Health Organization.

EHH stands for Environmental Health Hazards.

Water pollution is caused by the release of large amounts of carbon monoxide and ethane from flow stations, which pollute the water in oil-producing communities in Bayelsa State and the Niger Delta.

NADC stands for Nigeria Agip Oil Company.

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MANAGEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH HAZARDS IN BAYELSA STATE’S OIL PRODUCTION AREAS

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APPRAISAL OF INVESTORS CONFIDENCE IN THE NIGERIA REAL ESTATE SECTOR

Chapter one

Introduction.

1.1 Background of the Study

The Nigerian real estate sector has grown steadily and consistently over the previous four years, becoming one of the largest contributors to the country’s rebased GDP from non-oil sectors, accounting for 8.03% and 11% in 2013 and 2014, respectively (Ikekpeazu, 2004). The market, which is presently valued at around N6.5 trillion, is expected to increase at an average rate of 10% over the next few years.

The major growth drivers in the sector have been attributed to: an increase in foreign investment (particularly from South Africa, MEA, and the United States); increased institutional investment from local companies such as PFAs and Mutual Funds;

a growing population of High Net Worth Individuals; and the Federal Government’s targeted intervention in the housing finance industry.

This, however, implies that many stakeholders and investors are confident in the structure of Nigeria’s real estate sector, despite the country’s shrinking economy (Olotuah, 2000).

Real estate investing is the purchase, ownership, management, rental, and/or sale of real estate for profit. Real estate development is a sub-specialty of real estate investing that focusses on improving real estate properties as part of an investment strategy.

Real estate is a type of asset with restricted liquidity in comparison to other investments; it is also capital intensive (though capital can be obtained through mortgage debt) and heavily reliant on cash flow. If the investor does not fully understand and control these elements, real estate becomes a risky investment.

The fundamental reason of real estate investment failure is that the investor experiences unsustainable negative cash flow for an extended period of time, causing them to resell the property at a loss or declare bankruptcy.

A related technique known as flipping is another reason for failure because the nature of the investment is frequently connected with short-term profit with little effort.

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